The history of ancient Palestine-Syria is tightly connected with the history of ancient Egypt. To understand this special relationship between Egypt and Palestine, a brief narrative of the history of ancient Egypt is presented here.
A Brief History of Egypt
Egypt is the gift of the Nile River; its water traveled through the desert, meandering in a wide floodplain and bringing its rich alluvia into Egypt. Because of its geographical position, Egypt served as a natural passage for early humans migrating from East Africa toward the rest of the Old World. Early Homo erectus arrived in Egypt as long as 1.8 million years ago. It is believed that small bands of Homo erectus remained in the Nile Valley. In some deposits from the early and middle Pleistocene, isolated choppers, chopping tools, and flakes similar to those associated with early hominids in East Africa have been recovered in gravel quarries at Abbassiya, as well as in Theban gravel deposits. 36
Nomadic human hunters-gatherers lived in the Nile Valley through the end of the middle Pleistocene some 120,000 years ago. In Egypt, the earliest Neolithic cultures emerged in the western desert. This culture was different from the Neolithic culture of Palestine that emerged around the same time. There is no evidence of agricultural development in Egypt during this period, only evidence of cattle herding and the development of ceramic tools. This is why it is called the Saharan Neolithic/Ceramic culture. It appears that the Egyptian population between 7000 and 5000 BCE depended on fishing and hunting and gathering for subsistence. 37
The Badari culture was the earliest attestation of agriculture in Upper Egypt. Agricultural settlements dating between 5000 and 4000 BCE were discovered near the villages of Qau el-kebir, Hammamiya, Mostagedda, and Matmar in the Nile Valley. Archeological finds from Badarian settlements show evidence that the economy of this culture was an agricultural one. The storage facilities contained wheat, barley, lentils, and tubers. Some of the construction facilities were small animal enclosures. The Badari culture was known for its high-quality ceramics and its stone and copper tools. The Badari was followed by the Amratian (Naqada I) culture, between 4000 and 3500 BCE, and the Gerzeh (Naqada II) culture between 3500 and 3200 BCE. The Gerzean culture extended northward toward the delta and was in contact with Canaan. During the Naqada II phase, there was considerable development in techniques of stone working that paved the way for the great achievements of pharaonic stone architecture. Copper working was also intensified during this period. 38
The Naqada III phase, 3200–2686 BCE, was the last phase of the Predynastic
period; it was here that Egypt witnessed the establishment of the first unified state that laid the foundations for its first and second dynasties. It is believed that the political unification of the north and south took place in the early Naqada III as a result of a series of alliances or through warfare, or both. Excavations in the second half of the twentieth century CE revealed evidence of commercial contacts between northern Egypt and Palestine during the early Naqada III. During this period, the Egyptians established many settlements in north Sinai and in southern Palestine. There is also evidence of trade between the Egyptians and Mesopotamia, most likely via northern Syria. 39
The Old Kingdom (2686–2160 BCE)
Egypt’s ancient history is divided into three main periods—the Old Kingdom, the Middle Kingdom, and the New Kingdom—with intermediate periods between the three. The term “Old Kingdom” was introduced by nineteenth-century historians. It is very difficult to determine any difference between the early dynastic period (3000– 2686 BCE) and the Old Kingdom (2686–2160 BCE). King Djoser (2667–2648), known for building projects that had a great effect on Egyptian economy and society, was the first ruler of the Old Kingdom. This period was characterized by a highly developed administration and a strong central authority. Advanced irrigation projects were implemented, which resulted in increased agricultural productivity and economic prosperity. Other major features of the wealth and prosperity of the Old Kingdom included highly advanced architectural designs and magnificent construction projects, such as the Giza pyramids and the Great Sphinx.
The enormous volume of construction work during the period of the Old Kingdom had a serious effect on the country’s economy and society. A large section of the labor force required for pyramid building had to be diverted from agriculture and food production, which exerted considerable pressure on the country’s resources. More efficient methods of administering the country, including stricter methods of tax collection, were required to deal with such demands. The state was also forced to look for additional sources of revenue and manpower abroad. Military campaigns were carried out in Nubia (modern-day Sudan) and Libya in search of resources both human and animal.
Expeditions were sent abroad to bring materials not available in Egypt for these large building projects. During the reign of Sneferu (2613–2589 BCE), state-organized trade missions were sent to Phoenicia to bring shiploads of cedar wood. Siltstone was imported from Wadi Hammamat for the making of statues. The presence of Egyptian objects at Byblos and Ebla are evidence of diplomatic and commercial relations between Palestine-Syria and Egypt during the reign of Khafre (r. ca 2570 BCE). 40
The continuous depletion of the country’s wealth due to the construction of shrines and burial structures (i.e., the pyramids) and the increase in the administration’s expenses eroded the economic strength of the state until it could no longer maintain a large, centralized administration.
The First Intermediate Period
After five centuries of complete dominance by the pharaoh’s authority, a major shift in power occurred in which local governors took over the management of their regions. Over the next 140 years, Egypt witnessed a new situation where local leaders were able to stabilize the economy and maintain a considerable level of prosperity. The archeological data related to the First Intermediate Period indicate evidence of a thriving culture among the poorer levels of society and significant advancement in the provincial towns of Upper Egypt. During this period, the principle of caring for the weak was greatly emphasized. The provincial rulers were not merely sheltering and supporting a few people, but were taking care of all of society. 41
The Middle Kingdom (2055–1650 BCE)
King Nebhepetra Mentuhotep II (2055–2004 BCE) of the eleventh dynasty is considered the founder of the Middle Kingdom. After fourteen years as the regional ruler of its capital, Thebes, he and his forces unified Egypt and established a strong central authority that became known as the Middle Kingdom.
The kings of the Middle Kingdom were concerned about the immigration of Aamu—Canaanites and Amorites from Palestine-Syria—to the eastern delta. For this reason, they built an extensive line of fortifications in the eastern delta at the eastern end of the Wadi Tumilat. They also carried out military campaigns in Palestine against the Aamu in Sinai, the Negev, and as far as Transjordan. These campaigns resulted in the capture of 1,554 men as prisoners; they were brought to Thebes as slaves. The records of the Middle Kingdom reveal information about the presence of a large Aamu slave population in Egypt. Some were associated with temples, but most belonged to private individuals. It is believed that most of these slaves were prisoners of war. Some historians mention the possibility of acquiring slaves through trade, while others mention that seminomadic groups chose a livelihood in Egypt in exchange for their freedom.
The Middle Kingdom period was a time when art, architecture, and religion reached new heights. It was also an age of confidence in writing, encouraged by the growth of the “middle class” and the scribal sector of society. Under the direction of the Middle Kingdom rulers, Egypt had its eyes opened to the wider world of Nubia (modern-day Sudan, south of Egypt), Asia, and the Aegean, benefiting from the exchange of materials, products, and ideas.
While they were concerned about the immigration of Aamu, the kings of the Middle Kingdom were at the same time interested in establishing commercial and diplomatic relations with the city-states of the Canaanites and the Amorites. During the middle Bronze Age, Egypt was mainly interested in trade with Canaan (Phoenicia-Palestine); however, contacts were made with the Amorite kingdoms of Aleppo and Qatana, as both were vital centers for the caravan trade between Mari and Egypt, via the coastal ports of Syria. Excavations in Syria and Palestine have unearthed a number of small statuettes and other royal objects of the Middle Kingdom. Artifacts were found at Ugarit, Qatana (in Syria), Neirab near Aleppo, Beirut, and Byblos. It is fair to assume that these artifacts were gifts made to Syrian princes or their temples.
The kings of the Middle Kingdom were also interested in the services provided by prominent Palestinians in trade and mining in Sinai. During the reign of Amenemhat III (d. 1895 BCE), the Aamu were involved in overland caravans from the eastern delta to the Sinai mines for the purpose of transporting turquoise and copper. Most of the Aamu who were working in the caravans were of low status; many of them were slaves. A few of them were individuals of higher status who had positions of authority and honor, as mentioned in the inscriptions of Sinai. The Sinai inscriptions of Amenemhat III refer to the “men of Retenu”; the term “Retenu” was used in the Middle Kingdom to refer to southern Syria and Palestine. Most likely these men were used for the purpose of managing the caravan activity and serving as desert police.
The twelfth dynasty presided over a period of great political stability for some two hundred years, but the thirteenth dynasty, which ruled Egypt for the next 150 years, did not provide Egypt with the stability that the prior dynasty had maintained. Nehesy, the Egyptian commander of the troops in the delta, was elected as the king of the independent kingdom of the north. He received sufficient support from the Aamu of Avaris, as well as the Egyptian noble families who became more influential during the period of dynastic weakness, to become the first king of the fourteenth dynasty. His reign marked the end of the Middle Kingdom and the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period. 42
The Second Intermediate Period (1650–1550 BCE)
The Second Intermediate Period, also known as the Hyksos Period, is defined as an era of fragmentation of the two lands. Three distinct political entities existed in Egypt during this period:
- The kingdom of the Aamu (Hyksos); its capital was Avaris in the delta.
- The kingdom of Kush; its capital was Kerm.
- The kingdom of Upper Egypt; its capital was Thebes.
The Three Kingdoms were in continual conflict over territory and resources, and eventually were weakened enough to allow Ahmose to take over and unite the country, establishing the New Kingdom.
Avaris
The Hyksos ruled the delta between 1650 and 1550 BCE and controlled all of Egypt for a little over a century. The delta pharaohs at Avaris were frequently referred to as Aamu, a term translated by Egyptologists as “Asiatics” (i.e., inhabitants of Western Asia). The term “Hyksos,” a Greek word meaning “rulers of foreign countries,” was applied to the rulers of the Aamu.
The Aamu rose to power in the administration of the northern department and gradually took control. They inherited the Middle Kingdom structures of government and controlled the strategic administrative capital in the delta. The gradual increase of their influence in the eastern delta is described in the ancient Egyptian records of the Admonitions: “Foreigners have become people, Egyptians, everywhere . . . The foreigners are now skilled in the work of the delta.” The rule of the Hyksos in Egypt was not the result of an invasion of the delta by Palestinian military forces. According to John van Seters, “No great military conquest was needed to accomplish this [the rule of Egypt by the Hyksos], and it is doubtful that any occurred.” 43
The Hyksos kingdom in the eastern delta was the most prosperous of the three divisions of Egypt. It controlled trade with Palestine, Syria, Cyprus, Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and the Aegean through the control of the inland trade routes as well as the sea routes. It imposed restrictions on Thebes’ commercial activities, forcing Thebes to pay tribute as a vassal state. Politically, the Hyksos state was the most stable in Egypt; the governmental structure, from an administrative point of view, was the most organized, as it was the continuation of the government of the twelfth dynasty. Avaris was the administrative capital of the Middle Kingdom.
The Hyksos also were able to control the vital access routes to Asia. The relationship between Avaris and the princes of Syria-Palestine was the same relationship that existed between Egypt and Syria-Palestine during the Middle Kingdom: one with strong and active commercial and cultural ties. 44
The kingdom of Kush
Kush was a kingdom in Nubia, south of Egypt (modern-day Sudan). The Kushites were cattle breeders and warriors, particularly famous as bowmen. Their capital was Kerma. The center of the city consisted of sacred and administrative buildings as well as a special royal center for ceremonies. Immense resources in material and manpower were available to the king, which allowed him to carry out an extensive building program. The Nubians were a federation of tribes, not all of whom accepted the authority of the king of Kerma. Nubia was known for its gold mines. Gold drew the Thebans and the Kerma Nubians together, first as allies but finally as enemies. Kerma maintained its independence as a vassal of Avaris until it was defeated by Ahmose, the founder of the New Kingdom. With the defeat of the Hyksos, the Theban pharaohs eventually completed the unification of Egypt.
Palestine during the Late Bronze Age (1550–1150 BCE): A Province of the Egyptian Empire
The Theban pharaohs in Upper Egypt: The New Kingdom
The era of Egypt’s New Kingdom (1550–1069 BCE) was the era of the Egyptian empire. The pharaohs of the eighteenth dynasty adopted a new policy toward Palestine-Syria aimed at complete and direct control of this region. As soon as Ahmose defeated Avaris and unified Egypt, he marched toward southern Palestine. His first target was the fortified city of Sharuhen (Tell Fara). It took the Egyptian forces three years to capture the city.
Ahmose (1550–1525 BCE) was the first king of the eighteenth dynasty. He earned the title “Founder of the New Kingdom” after he defeated the Hyksos capital, Avaris, in the north. His successful military campaigns in Kush led to the reunification of Egypt. Once this was achieved, he devoted his efforts to reorganizing the government and building a strong central administration. The new administration took control of irrigation and all financial matters. He opened contacts with the Near East and continued commercial relations with Phoenicia and the Aegean world.
In 1520 BCE, Thutmose I (1525–1512 BCE), carried out several major military campaigns into the city-states in Palestine, advancing into Syria, reaching the upper Euphrates—the “land of the two rivers” (Naharin), or Iraq. However, his expeditions did not result in permanent occupation of the territories he conquered.
During the reign of Thutmose III (1504–1450 BCE), a coalition of several city-states in Syria and Palestine, under the leadership of the king of Qadesh, captured the Egyptian-occupied city of Megiddo, which occupied an important strategic position in the main trade route between Egypt and Mesopotamia. Following this victory, the Egyptian forces advanced north, crushing the western branch of the coalition and capturing all the coastal Phoenician cities. Qadesh, the main source of the resistance, was at last captured.
In the late spring of 1471 BCE, large numbers of troops were brought by sea to Syria. These troops crossed the Orontes (al-Asi) and Euphrates rivers, incorporating new territory into the Egyptian empire and receiving tribute from Babylon, Ashur, and the Hittites. At the end of his expeditions, Thutmose III brought back to the Egyptian court thirty-six sons of chiefs; these captives were to be educated and prepared to go back to eventually replace the hostile older generations.
Thutmose III was the greatest warrior of ancient Egypt. He carried out fourteen campaigns in Palestine-Syria, resulting in the consolidation of the Asiatic territories that created Egypt’s Asiatic empire. At the end, Palestine-Syria was definitely absorbed into the rising Egyptian empire. Palestine was divided into four administrative districts. Military garrisons were built at several Palestinian cities such as Gaza and Beth Shan. A series of treaties was forced on patrons of several towns in the hills and lowland districts, including Byblos, Tyre, Acco, Hazor (Tel al-Qadeh), Megiddo, Shechem, Jerusalem, Gezer, Lachish, and Ashqelon. The rulers of the Palestinian cities became vassals of the pharaoh; they were bound to him by personal oath and forced to pay heavy taxes. Yet those rulers still enjoyed a fair amount of independence. Egypt needed timber, oil, wine, wool, cheese, and meat. Egypt also was interested in the copper and turquoise deposits of the Sinai and Negev deserts. Its goal was to secure Palestine’s supplies and natural resources, and to control the trade routes.
Egypt’s grip on its empire was weakened during the fourteenth century BCE. During the reign of Akhenaten (1379–1362 BCE), Egypt was preoccupied by his religious reforms, which affected its interests in the northern Syrian territory, and ignored the management of the empire’s affairs. The Hittite empire took advantage of this situation and expanded its territories in Syria at the expense of both the Mitanni45 and Egypt. The weakness of the Egyptian administration also allowed the local rulers to engage in quarrels and conflicts among themselves. The Egyptian records at Tel el-Amarna, Akhenaten’s capital, revealed evidence of instability and a loss of order in Palestine. Letters to the pharaoh from the local rulers referred to the presence of lawless group of bandits called the Apiru who were living on the fringes of civilized society and represented a serious threat to the farming communities. These brigands preyed on trade caravans and took refuge in the caves and woods of the hills.
In the forty years following the death of Akhenaten, the country was focusing all its attention and efforts toward restoring the old order. Minimal military activities in Asia took place during this period. A limited military campaign was carried out by Seti I and his son Ramesses II against a new power, the Hittites. This campaign ended with the signing of a treaty with the Hittites in which both sides acknowledged one another’s interests in northern Syria. However, Ramesses II, who was twenty-five years old when he ascended the throne of Egypt in 1304 BCE, had made up his mind to prepare a strong army for a decisive war against the Hittites. He added a fourth field army and expanded the city of Pi-Ramesses to act as the forward supply base for the future operations in the Levant.
The Ramessid Pharaohs
In the spring of 1301 BCE, Ramesses II led his army northward to the Levant. He took the coastal route, passing by Tyre and Byblos. Upon arriving in Simyra, he turned inland and attacked the kingdom of Amurru, a known vassal of the Hittites, which became part of the Egyptian territories in northern Syria. Following this victory, he returned to Egypt. More campaigns followed, and ultimately an offer of a military disengagement from the Hittite king was accepted by the pharaoh of Egypt. A formal treaty of peace was signed between the two nations, and was sealed by the marriage of the Hittite king’s daughter to Ramesses II. 46
During the reign of Ramesses II, Egypt enjoyed peace and prosperity marked by extensive building programs. A new capital, Per-Ramesses, was established in the delta. A large number of prisoners captured in Palestine during the pharaoh’s military expeditions were put to work to build this city and other construction projects in the eastern delta. Ramesses II reorganized Egypt’s administration in Palestine, selecting certain Palestinian cities as command centers. Excavations at Tell Fara, Tell Sera, Beth Shan, Tell es-Sa’idiyeh, and Aphek (Auja) revealed a special type of building that became known as an “Egyptian governor’s residence”; it was a large, square public building divided into storerooms and courtyards. These cities were selected for their strategic military and economic locations. 47 The major trade routes were protected by the construction of forts and way stations. Deir el Balah was the last way station on the “Way of Horus” before Gaza. Permanent garrisons of Egyptian troops were maintained at Gaza and Beth Shan, as well as a number of other bases. Finds at the burial sites in these garrisons suggest the presence of foreign soldiers of Aegean or southern Anatolian origin as part of the Egyptian forces. 48
Tell es-Sa’idiyeh was an important Egyptian command center located in the south, east of the River Jordan. Built on the most fertile agricultural land, it was to serve as an administrative center as well as a major military base, hosting a large garrison composed of Egyptian soldiers and foreign people of Aegean or southern Anatolian origin. Those people, who were raiders and pirates captured by Egyptian forces during the reign of Ramesses II, formed a mercenary unit in the Egyptian army. Archaeological finds at this site indicate the presence of a sizable number of foreign residents who traveled by overland routes from Mycenae or Hatti and arrived at the end of the thirteenth century BCE. Similar discoveries were made at Deir ‘Alla, about ten kilometers south of es-Sa’idiyeh; at Tell Mazar, between Deir ‘Alla and es-Sa’idiyeh; and at Tell Fukhar, north of es-Sa’idiyeh. It is important to mention that there was a great increase in bronze production in Palestine and Transjordan at the end of the late Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age. It appears that those migrants were involved in this industry. Remains of furnaces were found at Tel Mor, Tel Qasile, Tel Masos, Beth Shemesh, and Deir ‘Alla. These areas were under direct Egyptian control at least until the reign of Ramesses V, around the middle of the twelfth century BCE. The Egyptians continued to control these metal-producing sites even when they withdrew from other regions of Palestine. Most likely the Egyptians employed the immigrants as metalworkers during the thirteenth century BCE, prior to the eighth year of the rule of Ramesses III, when the main attack by the Sea People on the delta occurred. 49
The Egyptian imperial presence in Palestine during the fourteenth and thirteenth centuries BCE stabilized its economy and contributed to the prosperity Palestine enjoyed during that period. 50 The strong military presence of Egypt in Palestine was of great benefit to the Palestinian economy; it provided security and protection for the farming communities, putting the Apiru attacks to an end. It appears that the Egyptian administration in Palestine was able to control these bandits. Some of them were rounded up and taken as prisoners during the Amarna period and during the campaigns of Seti I and Ramesses II, and were subsequently employed in the construction projects of Ramesses II. 51
The Palestinian economy flourished as a result of the expansion of commercial activity with Egypt. Canaanite products were favored in Egypt. The advances in craftsmanship achieved during the middle Bronze Age continued during the late Bronze Age. Many Egyptian prototypes were manufactured in Palestine for export to Egypt. Trade relations with Cyprus and the Aegean were expanded and enhanced as well.
During the late Bronze Age, the Egyptian empire controlled the international trade routes linking the Nile Valley with Syria, Anatolia, and the Euphrates Valley. Three major routes crossed Palestine, going by land, by sea, and across the desert: The Way of Horus, the Desert Crossing, and the King’s Highway. Overland routes passed through Sinai and Palestine, connecting Egypt with the Syrian cities of Ebla, Hama, Aleppo, Mari, Damascus, and Hazor (Tel al-Qadeh). Sea-trade routes passed through the Phoenician ports. International trade transformed the towns and villages along the inland trade routes, and turned the northern ports into major trade centers.52
The Collapse of the Bronze-Age Mediterranean Civilizations (1200–1150 BCE)
The Egyptian presence in Palestine continued throughout the reign of Ramesses V or Ramesses VI, around the middle of the twelfth century BCE. This is considered the transition point from the late Bronze Age to the Iron Age. Several civilizations around the Aegean experienced changes such as drought, earthquakes, and invasions that caused them to migrate into the surrounding lands, including Syria-Palestine. The flow of Aegean migrants continued until 1150 BCE or beyond.
The Great Mycenean Drought (1250–1050 BCE)
It appears that the collapse of the Bronze-Age Mediterranean civilizations during the late part of the thirteenth and the entire twelfth century BCE was the result of several factors, of which the prolonged and extended periods of drought were the most important. Earthquakes, internal unrest and rebellions, and invaders collectively contributed to the catastrophe. The eastern Mediterranean kingdoms faced all these threats at a time when they lacked the strength and organization needed to adapt to these challenges and to develop the necessary plans for recovery. In her book The Sea Peoples, Nancy Sandars points out that in the lands surrounding the Mediterranean, earthquakes, famine, droughts, and floods were ever-present. “Catastrophes punctuate human history but they are generally survived without too much loss. They are often followed by a much greater effort leading to greater success.” 53
Around 1250 BCE, the Mediterranean suffered a severe drop in sea level associated with a significant increase in temperature and sharp decrease in rainfall. This shift in climate became known as the Great Mycenaean Drought. It reached its height around 1200 BCE and lasted until 1050 BCE. It caused the collapse of ancient Mycenae, the Hittite empire, and the north Syrian state of Amurru. It disrupted civilization throughout the northern and eastern part of the Mediterranean basin. The only major Mediterranean power to survive was Egypt, which was not vulnerable to the drought as its agriculture depended on the Nile rather than on rainfall. The extended period of drought—nearly two hundred years—led to famines and widespread starvation that uprooted whole communities and forced people to leave their homes and farms. Many moved southward to Egypt, both by land and sea. Others moved to the coastal plains of Palestine. 54
Egypt devoted great efforts and resources to solving the serious problems resulting from the drought. These challenges included the movement of displaced people from the coastal cities into the central hills south of the Jezreel Valley, controlling the roaming Apiru bands and providing security for the farming communities, managing the settlement of the invaders from the sea who they captured (who became known as the Sea People), and maintaining and protecting the inland trade routes. The Egyptians made great efforts to deal with these urgent problems.
The Hittite central administration, unable to provide for the basic food needs of its citizens, was forced to ask Egypt for assistance. The Egyptians’ support failed to save the empire, however, which faced a large influx of refugees from Mycenae and lacked the military power to successfully repel the refugees.
During the drought, farming throughout Palestine entered a period of crisis. Some of the major towns, like Hazor (Tel al-Qadeh), were partially destroyed. Others, like Taanach in the Jezreel Valley, were abandoned completely. A few cities, like Megiddo, survived. Prior to the drought, most of Palestine’s population lived in major towns in central valleys and on the coastal plains. In response to the drought, farmers began to move out of the larger towns to more remote areas in the central coastal plain. They built multiple villages throughout the Acco plain and the Jezreel, Beth Shan, and northern Jordan valleys.
Egypt faced serious problems as a result of the drought and its impact on the entire region. The most urgent issue was helping the devastated areas with food supplies from its granaries. The second problem was controlling the massive waves of refugees arriving in the delta in Egypt and the different regions of Palestine.
Egyptian records mention intensive fighting, including sea battles against the Sea People. The sea attackers were raiders, not migrants; the vessels they used were warships—oared galleys carrying male warriors. These raiders appeared first in the Aegean region, then attacked several cities in Anatolia, northern Syria, Cyprus, Palestine, and Egypt, as well as the city of Ugarit.
Ugarit, the capital of the kingdom of Ugarit, was located near the sea on the Tell of Ras Shamra. Due to its maritime trade activities, Ugarit reached the height of its prosperity in the late Bronze Age. Between 1400 and 1350 BCE the kingdom was a vassal to Egypt, and between 1332 and 1260 BCE it was a vassal to Hatti, though it continued its commercial relations with Egypt. Based on recently discovered texts, the kingdom was defeated by the Sea People and the capital was destroyed by an earthquake and subsequent fires around 1190–1185 BCE. The reduction in the volume of sea trade affected the Phoenician ports of Byblos, Tyre, and Acco, and produced a domino effect on trade throughout Palestine. Trade-dependent agriculture diminished greatly, creating a major economic recession.
The Phoenician cities—Byblos, Sarepta, Sidon, Tyre, Acco—were not attacked by the sea raiders. The archaeologist Carol Bell gives a possible explanation for this: “Close commercial ties between the Aegean merchants and the Phoenician sites during the thirteenth century had resulted in personal ties with the would-be Aegean raiders of the twelfth century, causing them to spare the Phoenician sites, while Ugarit and other sites that did not have direct contact with the Aegean were destroyed.” 55
The sea battles took place in the Nile Delta, while the land battles took place somewhere between Amurru and southern Canaan, or even at the margins of the delta. Most scholars believe that the land war was not a single event, but rather a series of small-scale confrontations. The land invasions were more like waves of migration. In addition to the charioteers and warriors, the forces included women, children, and noncombatant men, loaded on oxcarts. According to Medinet Habu records, Ramesses took many captives in the sea battles, some of whom were pressed into military service to man the garrisons at the Egyptian control centers in Palestine.
In Palestine, the Egyptians facilitated the settlement of the refugees in different regions and helped the assimilation of newcomers with the inhabitants of Palestine. They devoted great efforts to maintaining order in the country by committing more troops, as they were concerned about the safety and security of the trade routes. To compensate for the loss of timber and other material resources, they assisted with moving the displaced population from the coastal cities into the central hills south of the Jezreel Valley.
Over the course of several generations, the newcomers integrated with the local people. This was not an easy process, as local populations were hardly looking for more mouths to feed in a period of deepening drought. At the end, and by the second half of the twelfth century BCE, the Aegean immigrants were integrated into the populations where they had settled. They adopted the Semitic languages and the Semitic gods. At the same time, they influenced the culture of the region. The lowland inhabitants, especially along the southern coast, adopted much from the immigrants. Such cultural adoptions can be seen in the wide use of the decorative pottery known as Philistine Ware. The new culture was a fully assimilated Palestinian one. 56
The Dawn of the Iron Age
In the wake of the Bronze-Age collapse, the use of iron in tools and weapons became prevalent. This transition marks the last phase of what is generally considered “prehistory” before historical recordkeeping began. The Middle East was one of the places where the Iron Age began earliest. It is possible that the Sea People, who were one of the catalysts for the devastation of the Mediterranean region around 1200 BCE, also helped to spread this new technology to Palestine.