PALESTINE

A History of the Land and Its People

Chapter 10: Islam: The Message and the Messenger

Editor’s note:

The story of the Prophet and his message is an important one. Like the other religions surveyed here, Islam has had a profound impact on all facets of Palestine and its people. Dr. Kanaan wrote extensively on this and other subjects.

The following is a synopsis of Dr. Kanaan’s writing on the topic. (His complete, unabridged history of Islam is available online and in PDF form. Those wishing to read Dr. Kanaan’s full account in all detail should refer to the book’s website at www.palestinehistorybook.com.) Even readers with an intimate knowledge of Islam, however, will find a great deal revealed in these pages, whereas the layman can obtain a better grasp of the achievements of the Prophet Muhammad and their historic implications.

Additionally, the language of the Quran has been presented here in English rather than its original Arabic. The sacred original words of the Arabic Quran are preserved in the unabridged history, along with the full text of Dr. Kanaan’s writing on Islam.

The quotes from the Holy Quran given here are from the Arabic-English Quran translated by Talal Itani, published by ClearQuran (Dallas, Beirut).

This map titled "Western Asia and the Mediterranean on the Eve of Islam" provides a detailed map of the geopolitical situation in the region around the 7th century. It shows the Byzantine Empire, Sasanian Empire, and various important cities such as Rome, Jerusalem, and Alexandria, along with Arabian trade routes and the emerging centers of Islam like Mecca and Medina. The map also highlights other entities such as the Iberian Peninsula and Khorasan, illustrating the geographical and political context before the rise of Islam.
This map titled “Western Asia and the Mediterranean on the Eve of Islam” provides a detailed map of the geopolitical situation in the region around the 7th century. It shows the Byzantine Empire, Sasanian Empire, and various important cities such as Rome, Jerusalem, and Alexandria, along with Arabian trade routes and the emerging centers of Islam like Mecca and Medina. The map also highlights other entities such as the Iberian Peninsula and Khorasan, illustrating the geographical and political context before the rise of Islam.

Mecca: The Consecrated City

The biblical story of Abraham states that he migrated from Ur in Southern Mesopotamia to Haran, on one of the upper Euphrates tributaries, in northern Syria. In Haran, God appeared to him and commanded: “Go from your country and your kindred and your father’s house to the land I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you and make your name great so that you will be blessing” (Genesis 12:1–2). This land was Palestine. The story places this event in the second millennium BCE. The tale also states that Abraham’s wife Sarah gave Abraham her Egyptian slave, Hagar, to be his concubine, hoping that God might give him a child through her, as Sarah could not produce children because of her advanced age. Hagar gave birth to a child named Ismael. Abraham’s joy was great. As Sarah watched Hagar looking after her newborn son, her jealousy grew stronger every day, especially when she noticed that Abraham was showing great love to Hagar and Ismael.

The second chapter of this tale takes place far away from Palestine. Sarah asked Abraham to send Hagar and Ismael away. Abraham traveled with Hagar and Ismael from Hebron in south Palestine to a desolate valley in the Arabian Peninsula which came to be known as Mecca, a forty-day trip by camel. Abraham left Hagar and her son in that uninhabited place, with little food, mainly dates, and little water; and went back to Sarah in Palestine.

Hagar devoted herself to her young child. Soon however, her supply of food and water was exhausted. The two were soon very hungry and thirsty. She was in a valley between two hills: al-Safa and al-Marwah. She kept running between the two hills, exploring the area around her, hoping to find somebody to help. She ran between the two hills seven times. Meanwhile, the boy, Ismael, during this time was in the bottom of the valley between the two hills, rubbing the earth with his leg. Suddenly, water gushed forth between his feet. Hagar shouted, “God is Supreme,” and rushed back to her son. After giving her child enough to drink, she drank herself and thanked God for His grace. The water continued to gush forth, attracting birds. This drew the attention of the Jurhum, an Arabian tribe traveling north across the desert. Realizing that a spring must be in the area, they changed course, hoping to wash and drink. They then met Hagar and realized that the spring, Zamzam, belonged to her. She welcomed the tribe and invited them to encamp.

This was the beginning of settled life in the valley of Mecca. Ismael grew up among the Jurhum tribe, and when he became a young man, he married a Jurhum girl who gave him many sons and daughters. Abraham visited Hagar and Ismael every now and then. On one of his visits, Abraham saw in his dream that he was commanded to sacrifice his son, Ismael, who was in his teens at that time, for God’s sake. According to scripture, the following exchange occurred:

Then, when he was old enough to accompany him, he said, “O my son, I see in a dream that I am sacrificing you; see what you think.” He said, “O Father, do as you are commanded; You will find me, Allah willing, one of the steadfast.”

(Chapter 23, Surah 37: 102, Al Safat)

Abraham and Ismael went to a place that became known as Mina, prepared to obey God’s orders. Satan tried to dissuade Abraham from sacrificing his son. Abraham’s submission to God’s will was firm, and he threw stones at Satan three times. Just when Abraham was about to cut his son’s throat, an angel appeared and told him to stop.

Then, when they had submitted, and he to God, and he put his forehead down. We called out to him, “O, Abraham! You have fulfilled the vision.” Thus We reward the doers of good. This was certainly an evident test. And We redeemed him with a great sacrifice. And We left with him for later generations. Peace to be upon Abraham. Thus We reward the doers of good. He was one of Our believing servants.

(Chapter 23, Surah 37: 103–111, Al Safat)

On another visit, Abraham told his son that God had ordered him to erect a house in that place to serve as a consecrated temple. Both father and son worked hard to lay the foundations and erect the building. As father and son completed the building, they prayed and asked God to accept their work and bless their deed.

God accepted the work done by Abraham and Ismael and answered their prayers. He made the building they erected a center of worship that people from all over the world would visit in pilgrimage. God told Abraham that it was his will that Mecca should be a consecrated city where fighting was forbidden. Its animals were to move about safely without fear of being hunted. It was forbidden to cut down its trees. People were to be secure and safe there. Such has been the status in Mecca ever since Abraham built that house, which was the first ever built there.

The pagan Arabs believed that this sanctuary, the Ka’bah, was built first by Adam, the first man. They also believed that Adam’s original building was destroyed by the Great Flood, then rebuilt by Noah. They also believed that after Noah, it was forgotten for generations until Abraham rediscovered it while visiting Hagar and Ismael. The truth is that no one knows who built the Ka’bah, or when it was built. Most likely the discovery of Zamzam in the middle of the desert by the wandering Bedouin tribes of Arabia was the reason for the sanctity of the area. It is likely then, that the Ka’bah was erected in that valley not just as a sacred place, but as a secure place to store the consecrated objects used in the rituals that had evolved around Zamzam. 217

Pre-Islam Religious Beliefs of Arabia

Before Islam, the Arabian Peninsula was dominated by paganism. Paganism does not have a definite meaning. The term was introduced by the monotheists to describe those who do not believe in the oneness of God. In pre-Islamic Arabia, many people believed in a single supreme god without rejecting the existence of other subordinate gods. The German scholar Max Miller termed this concept henotheism. The earliest evidence of henotheism in Arabia can be traced back to a tribe called the Amir who lived near modern-day Yemen in the second century BCE, and who worshipped a high god called dahu-Samawi, the lord of the heavens. By the sixth century CE, henotheism had become the standard belief of the vast majority of sedentary (non-nomadic) Arabs, who accepted Allah as their high god. 218

Allah was originally an ancient rain/sky deity who had been elevated to the role of the supreme god of the pre-Islamic Arabs. Being the high god in the Arab pantheon, Allah was difficult for ordinary people to reach. The most powerful among his intercessors, who were more easily accessed, were his three daughters Allat (the goddess), al-Uzza (the mighty), and Manat (fate). Arabs believed that God had married the jinn and had begotten angels as his daughters through that marriage. 219 These divine mediators were not only represented in the Ka’bah, but they had their own individual shrines: Allat in Ta’if; al-Uzza in Nakhlah; and Manat in Qudayd.

The Ka’bah was a small, roofless structure that housed the 360 gods of pre-Islamic Arabia, representing every god recognized in the Arabian Peninsula. The most famous ones were Hubal, the Syrian god of the moon; al-Uzza, the powerful goddess the Egyptians knew as Isis and the Greeks as Aphrodite; al-Kutba, the Nabataean God of writing and divination; Jesus, the incarnate god of the Christians, and his holy mother, Mary.

The original building of the Ka’bah was nine arms in height. At the beginning of the seventh century CE, the Quraysh tribe, who controlled Mecca and the Ka’bah, decided to rebuild it; the height was then increased to eighteen arms. When the Ka’bah was rebuilt about ninety years later by Abdullah ibn al-Zubayr, he increased it to its present height, which is equal to the length of twenty-seven arms.

During the holy months, pilgrims from all over the peninsula would make their way to Mecca to visit their tribal deities. As they reached the Ka’bah, they would sing songs of worship and dance in front of the 360 gods; then the pilgrimage rituals began. Two of the rituals were performed in the Ka’bah: Jogging seven times between the hills of Safa and Marwah, to the east of Ka’bah; and gathering as a group and jogging around the Ka’bah seven times. The origin of the first ritual goes back to the story of Hagar jogging between the two hills looking for help, when the spring Zamzam gushed forth between her son’s feet. The origin of the second ritual, called tawaf (circumambulation), is a mystery. Pagan Arabs believed that this ritual was initiated by Abraham after he completed the construction of the Ka’bah. 220 As the pilgrims jogged around the Ka’bah, they were following the course of the sun around the earth, and in this way they were putting themselves in harmony with the fundamental order of the cosmos. A black stone—a piece of basalt of meteoric origin— embedded in the eastern wall of the Ka’bah helped them to remain oriented and to count their seven circumambulations. The pagan Arabs believed that this stone had once fallen from the sky, linking heaven and earth. 221

Other duties of pilgrimage were done outside the boundaries of the Haram area in a circle of about a twenty-kilometer radius around Mecca. These rituals included visiting Mount Arafat (it was commonly held that no pilgrimage ws valid unless the pilgrim was present at Arafat on the ninth day of Dhul-Hijjah, the last month of the lunar year). This was followed by an all-night vigil on the plain beside the mountain, an area called Muzdalifah, the home of the thunder god. The final ritual was hurling pebbles at three pillars in the valley of Mina, symbolizing Abraham throwing stones at Satan. Finally, the pilgrims were to sacrifice their most valuable female camels. 222

The monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism were present in pre-Islam Arabia, and influenced the religious beliefs of the Arabs. The pagan Arabs were familiar with Judaism and the Old Testament. They considered themselves descendants of Abraham. They believed that Abraham was the one who rebuilt the Ka’bah, and he was the one who created the pilgrimage rites that took place there. In the sixth century CE, Arabs associated their god, Allah, with the Jewish god Yahweh. Jews in Arabia, whether in Yemen or in the north, were converts. There were Jewish merchants, Jewish Bedouins, Jewish farmers, Jewish poets, and Jewish warriors through Arabia. Jewish men took Arab names; Jewish women wore Arab headdresses. The primary language of the Jews of Arabia was the Arabic, not Aramaic. Judaism in Arabia was different from traditional Judaism. The Jews shared many of the same religious ideals as pagan Arabs. 223

Christianity surrounded Arabia from the northwest (Syria), the northeast (Mesopotamia), and the south (Abyssinia). Many Arab tribes had converted to Christianity, the largest of them being the Ghassanids in the north. The Byzantine emperors sent missionaries to spread Christianity among pagan Arabs. Christianity’s presence in the Arabic peninsula influenced the pagan Arabs in many ways. The Arabs were familiar with the New Testament. An image of Jesus the incarnate god was placed in the Ka’bah along with a picture of his mother Mary.

Zoroastrianism was the dominant religion of the Persian Empire. In the tenth and eleventh centuries BCE, its prophet Zarathustra preached a unique monotheistic religion based on the god Ahura Mazda, “the Wise Lord.” Although Zoroastrianism was a non-proselytizing religion, the Sassanian military presence in the Arabian Peninsula had resulted in a few tribal conversion to Zoroastrianism.

The presence of these three monotheistic religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism—in Arabia had an effect among the people of Arabia, creating a breeding ground for new ideologies. Hanifism, a monotheistic movement that arose in Hijaz in the sixth century CE, was the most important of these ideologies, and would influence the future religious beliefs of the Arabs. Muslim historians recount the names of the most prominent hanifs; for example, ibn Hisham, in his biography of the Prophet Muhammad, names Waraqa ibn Nawfal, Uthman ibn Huwairith, Ubayd Allah ibn Jahsh, and Zayd ibn Amr. These four men made a solemn pact to follow the religion of Abraham, whom they considered to be neither a Jew nor a Christian, but a pure monotheist—a hanif, which means in Arabic “to turn away [from idolatry].” The four hanifs who bonded together in strong friendship started to preach the new religion. In the end, two of them, Waraqa and Uthman, converted to Christianity. Ubayd Allah converted to Islam and was one of the Muslims who emigrated to Abyssinia. While in Abyssinia he embraced Christianity and died a Christian. 224 Zayd continued preaching Hanifism and criticizing idolatrous worship. He tried to save every young girl who was to be buried alive by her father. Such activities angered his uncle, Omar ibn al-Khattab, who managed to banish him to an area outside Mecca. However, Zayd managed to escape and left Arabia to travel widely in Syria and Iraq. While he was traveling, an aged Christian priest told him that the time was ripe for the appearance of a new prophet in Arabia. Therefore he immediately decided to return to Mecca. Unfortunately, he was murdered on his way home.

The Hanifism movement flourished throughout the Hijaz, especially in major population centers such as Ta’if and Yathrib. It was a mature Arab monotheistic movement. The hanifs believed in one God, the creator, who did not need mediators between him and humans. They were committed to an absolute morality.

Northern Arabia and the Rise of Mecca

During the sixth century CE, nomadic life (badawah) was the rule in northern Arabia. Settled life in the steppes was almost impossible due to the scarcity of resources. Nomads relied on herding sheep and goats and breeding horses and camels for their existence. Nomadic life was harsh, characterized by constant struggle, because there were too many people competing for too few resources. They were constantly wandering in search of water and grazing land for their cattle. They were always hungry, on the brink of starvation, which forced them to fight with other tribes for water, pastureland, and grazing rights. Consequently the gazu (acquisition raid) was essential to the badawah economy. In times of scarcity, tribesmen would invade the territory of their neighbors for the purpose of stealing camels, cattle, or other valuables; however, they avoided killing anybody. The gazu was not considered a crime or morally wrong; it was a rough way of redistributing wealth when there was not enough to satisfy the need to stay alive.

The tribe was the basic unit of social life in nomadic Arabia, and the tribal society was governed by a traditional tribal ethic. The nomads’ survival was dependent on a strong sense of tribal solidarity based on the sharing of all available resources. “The tribal ethic was founded on the principle that every member had an essential function in maintaining the stability of the tribe, which was only as strong as its weakest members. The tribal ethic was meant to maintain social egalitarianism so that regardless of one’s position, every member could share in the social and economic rights and privileges that preserved the unity of the tribe.” 225

During the sixth century the Bedouins invented a saddle that enabled camels to carry far heavier loads than before. Camels then replaced donkeys for transporting the merchants’ luxury goods such as gold, precious stones, ivory, wood, spices, cotton, and silk from India; incense, ebony, ostrich feathers, gold, and ivory from east Africa; incense, myrrh, and other spices from Yemen; gum from Zufar; and pearls from the coast of Bahrain. 226 Mecca, which was conveniently located in the center of Hijaz, became the trade station for the caravans traveling north to Syria. Settled life was possible in this location after the discovery of the spring of Zamzam. 227

The head of the tribe, called the sheikh, was unanimously elected by the tribe. The sheikh was the most highly respected member of the community, and usually one of the oldest. He represented the ideals of muruwah: bravery, honor, hospitality, strength in battle, concern for justice, and dedication to the collective good of the tribe. All decisions related to the interest of the tribe were made by the sheikh after consultation with other prominent members of the tribe, such as the qa’id (war leader), the kahin (cultic official), and the hakam (arbitrator). The sheikh’s main responsibility was to protect those who could not protect themselves: the poor and the weak, the young and the elderly, orphans and widows.

Maintaining law and peace in the tribe was the responsibility of the sheikh, who enforced the traditional law of retribution. This law was based on the concept of “an eye for an eye.” It was the responsibility of the sheikh to maintain peace and stability in his community by ensuring the proper retribution for all crimes committed within the tribe. In cases where negotiation was required, a hakam would make a legal decision.

Crimes committed against other tribes were not considered crimes. Stealing, killing, or injuring another person was not considered morally wrong. However, if someone from one tribe harmed a member of another, the injured tribe, if strong enough, could demand retribution. In such cases, it was the responsibility of the sheikh to ensure that other tribes understood that any act of aggression against his people would be equally avenged. At the same time, it was his responsibility to negotiate a settlement if members of his tribe committed a crime.

A sedentary (hadarah) lifestyle was possible in northern Arabia in areas where water was sufficiently available to establish and maintain agriculture. There were a few such places; Ta’if and Yathrib were among them. A sedentary lifestyle also became possible when a tribe accumulated sufficient wealth through other means. 228 This was possible in the north at the border with Syria, where the tribe of Gassan settled on the border of the Byzantine Empire and became clients of the Byzantines, defending Byzantium against Persia. It became also possible when a tribe accumulated enough wealth through trade, as happened in Mecca when it became a trade station.

Several factors were behind the establishment of sedentary life in mountainous, arid Mecca. The first and most important one was the discovery of an underground water source, the miraculous spring of Zamzam. Mecca’s location in the center of Hijaz made it a trade station for the caravans traveling north to Syria, especially with the availability of plenty of drinking water. It was not just water that attracted the travelers to stop at Mecca; the sanctity of Zamzam and the mythology behind the discovery of the spring was even more important for them. These elements that nature had provided to the Bedouins laid down the foundation for the transformation from a badawah to a sedentary society. However, the human element—the vision of the leaders of the Quraysh—was behind the transformation of Mecca into the capital city of Arabia.

The Quraysh: The Custodians of Ka’bah

The Jurhum tribe was the first to settle in Mecca. In time, other tribes came and settled there. The Jurhum, who were considered the “maternal uncles of Ismael,” became the custodians of Ka’bah. As such, the Jurhum were the leaders of Mecca. They continued to hold this position for a long time, but eventually they abused their status, which resulted in the loss of the honor of the custody of Ka’bah to another tribe, Khusa’ah. The Jurhum did not surrender willingly. As they left Mecca, they collected all the treasures of Ka’bah and buried them in the well of Zamzam, then leveled the well and removed all traces of its position. 229

The Khusa’ah tribe held the custodianship of the Ka’bah and the leadership of Mecca for a long time until the Quraysh tribe, under the leadership of Qusayy ibn Kila’b, took over. Qusayy was the fifth grandfather of the prophet Muhammad bin Abdulla’h. An intelligent, honorable young man of Quraysh, Qusayy married the daughter of Khusa’ah’s chief, Hulayl ibn Hubshiyyah. Hulayl recognized the qualities of leadership in Qusayy and was very fond of him. On his deathbed, Hulayl made it known that Qusayy was his choice as custodian of the Ka’bah and ruler of Mecca. Upon settling disputes with other contestants, Qusayy asked all the clans of Quraysh to join him in his effort to organize the city. He earned the support and respect of all the clans of his tribe. He built a big hall next to the Ka’bah to serve as a meeting place for the Quraysh and called it Dar al-Nadwah. In this building, he gathered representatives of all clans for consultations. He also established the tradition of Rifadah, where he offered the pilgrims food when they arrived in the city. He gathered the Quraysh notables and set the rules of Rifadah: “The pilgrims, when they visit God’s house, are God’s guests. You must be hospitable to them. Let us then provide them with food and drinks in the days of pilgrimage until they have left our city to return to their homes and families.”

Qusayy was succeeded by a number of leaders among his offspring who continued the same traditions of looking after the tribe and taking care of pilgrims. Hashim, Qusayy’s grandson, put hospitality to pilgrims on an unprecedented level. He provided all the funds needed for Rifadah from his own wealth, which came from trade. He was interested in offering his commercial expertise to all members of his tribe so that he could enhance the wealth of the entire community. He started biannual commercial trips: in the summer, a large commercial caravan went from Mecca to Syria, and a similar one went to Yemen in winter. Each caravan was a joint enterprise in which all Meccan people shared. It brought profit to the people and prosperity to the city. 230

One of the most prominent successors of Hashim was his son Abd al-Muttalib, who continued the tradition of Rifadah. However, he faced the problem of a shortage of water in Mecca. There were only few scattered wells, which hardly were sufficient for the need of its population. In his sleep he had a dream, where a voice was telling him to “dig the good one.” This dream was repeated for several nights. In his dream, Abd al-Muttalib asked the voice: What is the good, blessed one? For the first several nights, he did not get an answer. At last, one night he had the answer from the voice: “Dig Zamzam.” The following morning he started digging between al-Safa and al-Marwah. He continued to dig for three days before his shovel hit something metallic. When he removed the sand around the metallic object, he discovered two gold deer and other valuables including a large quantity of shields and swords. He recognized that these were the objects buried in Zamzam by the Jurhum when they had left Mecca. He continued digging, and soon he found the well. He shouted: “God is supreme. This is indeed Ismael’s well. This is Zamzam, the drinking water of pilgrims.” Abd al-Muttalib and his offspring dedicated the well for the benefit of the pilgrims and continued to provide them their needs of water. 231

Mecca, the Consecrated City, Becomes the Economic Center of Arabia

During the second half of the sixth century CE, Mecca became the most prosperous city in Arabia. The advancement of the city is attributed to the vision and wisdom of its leaders. The policies they established in governing the city, and the measures they adopted in dealing with the other tribes, enabled them to make Mecca the capital of Arabia. The first step in this direction was taken by Qusayy, who laid down the foundation of the institutions of government. The system of government which was established by Qusayy was based on a balanced distribution of responsibilities and functions. He adopted a policy of involving the heads of all clans in decision making. Dar al-Nadwah was the place where the representatives of all clans met to discuss all matters that concerned the community. It was a government by consensus. By the standards of the time, this was quite an advanced system of government, and it helped Mecca to undergo a significant transition from a semi-Bedouin town to a civilized city. 232

The Quraysh established the Haram, a zone with a twenty-mile radius with the Ka’bah at its center, where all violence and hostilities were forbidden. The Ka’bah transformed the entire surrounding area into sacred ground, where fighting among tribes was prohibited and weapons were not allowed. The Quraysh made special agreements with Bedouin tribes, who promised not to attack the caravans during the season of the trade fairs; in return, these Bedouin confederates were compensated for the loss of income by being permitted to act as guides and protectors of the merchants. The pilgrims who traveled to Mecca during the pilgrimage season enjoyed the peace and the security of the sacred ground. 233

The Quraysh leaders were aware of the great value of Ka’bah as a spiritual center. They realized that combining trade and religion would advance the economy of their city. Guided by this principle, they reconstructed the architecture of the sanctuary so that it became a spiritual center for all Arab tribes. They collected the totems of the tribes and installed them in the Haram so that the tribesmen could only worship their patronal deities when they visited Mecca. Unlike the other sanctuaries in Arabia, the Ka’bah was unique, as it became a universal shrine. Every god in preIslamic Arabia resided there, which led to a deep spiritual attachment not only to the sanctuary, but also to the city of Mecca. The Quraysh created a lucrative trading zone in the city where pilgrims brought merchandise with them to trade. By linking the religious and economic life of the city, Qusayy and his descendants developed an innovative religio-economic system that relied on the control of Ka’bah.

During the pilgrimage season, Mecca hosted pilgrims, merchants, and commercial caravans. All caravans passing by the city encamped on the outskirts of the Meccan valley, where their loads were assessed by Mecca’s officials, who then collected a modest fee (tax) on all commerce that took place in the valley. The caravan workers would then enter the city. They cleaned themselves at the well of Zamzam, then introduced themselves to the “Lord of the House” before starting the circumambulation rituals around the Ka’bah. 234

Mecca during the sixth century was not just a trade station for the caravans traveling north, but was the financial center of Arabia. The two annual commercial trips to Syria in the summer and to Yemen in winter brought wealth to the community. All clans participated in these trips, whose caravans comprised several hundred camel loads of goods. Meccan merchants also traveled to many parts of Africa and Asia.

Side by side with the emergence of long-distance international trade, intertribal trade within Arabia began to emerge around the seasonal suqs (marketplaces). The suqs established regular organized links between the sedentary communities of the peninsula. They also set the foundation for the rules of the secure zone around Mecca. The most important one was the prohibition on fighting and raiding for four months of the year (the ashhur haram, or “forbidden months”) which happened to be the months during which all of the suqs of Hijaz and more than half of the suqs in the peninsula were held. 235 Bedouin tribes began to exchange goods with one another. Merchants brought their merchandise to the series of regular markets that were held each year in different parts of Arabia; they were arranged so that traders circled the peninsula in a clockwise direction. The first suq of the year was held in Bahrain; they were then held successively in Oman, Hadramat, and Yemen, and the cycle concluded with five consecutive suqs in and around Mecca. The last suq of the year was held in Ukaz immediately before the month of the hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca). 236

The Quraysh took all measures to preserve peace in the Haram zone, especially during the sacred months, to prevent any disruption of commercial activities. They were successful in achieving this goal most of the time, except during the al-Fijar war, which lasted for a period of four years in the late part of the sixth century CE. This was a series of battles that took place between the Quraysh and the Hawazin, in a response to a quarrel between two merchants in the vicinity of Ukaz during one of the four holy months. The man from Hawazin was murdered by a man from Quraysh. These battles became known as the hurub al-Fijar (sinful war). It is reported that Mecca was forced into a fight after having opted to withdraw, out of respect for the sacred month. The other tribe, the Hawazin, did not abide by the concept of no fighting during the holy months, so the war continued for four years. 237

Shortly after the end of the al-Fijar war, a visiting Yemen`i merchant from Zubayd agreed to sell some of his goods to a prominent Meccan merchant, al-A’s ibn Wa’il, who bought them all but did not pay him. When the man realized that he was about to lose everything, he appealed to several clans of Quraysh to support him. They all declined to stand against al-A’s ibn Wa’il. It became obvious that the law of retribution did not function when one party in a dispute was wealthy and so powerful. In his desperation, the Yemeni from Zubayd stood on top of a hill overlooking the Ka’bah at sunrise, when the men of Quraysh gathered around the Ka’bah. He made his appeal to them, stating his case in a passionate and desperate manner. He reminded them of their position as the custodians of the sacred house of worship. Al-Zubayr ibn Abd al-Muttalib, an uncle of Muhammad, stood up and said that injustice must not be allowed.

A meeting was organized in the house of Abdullah ibn Jud’an. Representatives of many clans of the Quraysh were present. The attendants gave their pledges, swearing by God that they would stand united, supporting anyone in Mecca who suffered any injustice, whether he was a Meccan or an alien. The alliance then forced Ibn Wa’il to return the goods to the man of Zubayd. The alliance became known as the al-Fudul alliance, and their agreement became known as the al-Fudul covenant. This covenant aimed at preserving commercial integrity and preventing the exclusion of Yemenites or merchants of other tribes from the Meccan market. 238

The Quraysh managed to secure a monopoly over the north-south trade, so that they alone were allowed to service the foreign caravans. They also were able to control intertribal trade. The suqs were arranged in a way that benefited Mecca the most. The seasonal rotation around the peninsula that ended in Mecca and stayed there for four months emphasized the position of Mecca as the financial center of Arabia. Its location in the center of Hijaz surrounded by vast desert gave Mecca relative isolation from the great powers of the region, Byzantium and Persia. Neither of them had any interest in the difficult terrain of Arabia, so the Quraysh could create a modern economy without imperial control. The separation from the great powers led to an independent economy that was immune to any decline of the economy of these empires. In the late part of the sixth century and the start of the seventh century, Persia and Byzantium were engaged in debilitating wars with one another, which weakened both. As Syria and Mesopotamia were the battleground of these wars, the trade routes in these regions were abandoned. Quraysh took advantage of the situation, which enabled them to control the intermediary trade between north and south. This period also witnessed the decline of Yemen and serious conflicts among several trading peninsular tribes. All these factors enhanced Mecca’s position and contributed to the success of the Quraysh in their efforts to monopolize trade in Arabia. 239

Mecca’s innovative religio-economic system linking the religious and economic life of the city was behind the growth and wealth of Mecca. Its competitors realized this fact. This was why, in 570 BCE, the Abyssinian Christian ruler Abraha tried to destroy the Ka’bah after constructing his own pilgrimage center in Sana’h. Abraha targeted Mecca’s sanctuary not because the Ka’bah was a religious threat, but because Mecca was an economic rival. (The attack failed, and soon thereafter, the Abyssinians were defeated by the Sassanians.)

Mecca enjoyed its position as the largest city in Arabia. However, the prestige brought with it corruption of the ideals on which it had been built. The Quraysh leaders became extremely wealthy; prominent merchants controlled most of the wealth. The rich were controlled by the rules of the market economy: ruthless competition, greed, and individual enterprise, and not the communal spirit and the tribal ethic. The affluent clans were engaged in fierce competition with one another for wealth and prestige. Instead of sharing their wealth with the other members of the community, they were hoarding their money and building private fortunes. Not only did they ignore the plight of the poor, but they exploited the rights of orphans and widows. The principles of muruwah seemed incompatible with market economy. Cruelty, unjust practices, and the deprivation of others’ rights by force went unpunished. This inevitably led to tension and the destruction of the fabric of Meccan society. 240

The Great Powers Surrounding Arabia

In the sixth century CE, the Near East was divided between two great powers: the Romans in the west and the Persians (Sassanids) in the east. The Roman Empire was known as the Eastern Roman Empire or the Byzantine Empire. The western part of the Roman Empire had ceased to exist in the fifth century after it was overrun by barbarians. The Eastern Empire, with its capital Constantinople, survived and was able to expand in the sixth century. It included Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, North Africa, and southeastern Europe. It also controlled the Mediterranean islands and part of Italy. The Christian kingdom of Axum was a Byzantine client-state. Byzantium also controlled Arab tribes on the border of Palestine and Syria.

The Persian (Sassanian) Empire was known as Iran or Iranshahr. The Sassanids came to power in 224 CE and retained their dominance until the mid-seventh century. Their territory included modern-day Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, eastern Syria and Turkey, part of the Caucasus, and the Persian Gulf. The Sassanians established several protectorates over Arab tribes on the East Arabian coast and in Oman. The two empires were engaged in many wars between the fourth and sixth centuries in an effort to protect or expand their territories. Both empires were interested in controlling the key zones of Mesopotamia and Armenia and establishing alliances with lesser states in the region. Both empires were interested in financial and economic gains from profitable trade with the Orient. Different products were brought from the East to the Mediterranean basin: southern Arabian incense, Chinese silk, Indian pepper and cotton, spices, and other products from the Indian Ocean region.

Arabia occupied a strategic position in the Orient trade, which led both powers to intervene in its affairs.

In the third and fourth centuries, the Byzantine emperors declared themselves champions of Christianity. In the sixth century, the majority of the Near Eastern population were Christians, but they were divided into several sects. The official church of the Byzantine Empire was the Greek Orthodox Church. Christians following the teachings of Bishop Nestorius (Nestorianism) were forced to leave the Byzantine Empire after Nestorius was deposed for heresy by the Council of Ephesus in 431 CE (see page XX) and took refuge in the Sassanian Empire. Another Christian sect, the Monophysites, were declared heretics by the Council of Chalcedon in 451 CE. Monophysitism was the creed of most Christians of Axum, Egypt, Syria-Palestine, Mesopotamia, Armenia, and Iran. The Sassanian kings, for their part, embraced Zoroastrianism as their official religion. The majority of the population of Iran and southern Mesopotamia were Zoroastrians. Although both the Byzantine and the Sassanian empires embraced the official religions of their countries, large populations of Jews were scattered throughout the Near East in major cities such as Alexandria, Jerusalem, Tiberias, Antioch, Hamadan, Rayy, Susa, Constantinople, and Ctesiphon. Communities of all three revealed scriptural religions—Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroastrianism—were also found in Arabia. 241

The Abyssinians were the third major empire bordering Arabia. This empire, which was established around 400 BCE, embraced Christianity in the third century CE. The Abyssinians controlled the Horn of Africa, the Red Sea coast, and occasionally western Arabia. They also controlled Yemen between 521 and 570 CE.

Muhammad, the Global Influencer

The prophet Muhammad (570–632 CD) is named by Michael H. Hart as the world’s most significant person due to his enormous influence on both the secular and religious levels during his lifetime. 242 Muhammad was born in Mecca and orphaned at age six, and he grew up illiterate in modest circumstances. When he was forty years old, Muhammad realized that Allah, the One True God, had chosen him to spread the true faith. As his adherents grew, the Meccan authorities began to view him as a threat, and in 613 he was forced to flee to the city of Medina (previously called Yathrib, some three hundred kilometers north of Mecca). In Medina, he gained many followers and considerable political power; a number of battles between Mecca and Medina followed, culminating in Muhammad’s victorious return to Mecca in 630. He then spent the last two years of his life converting the Arab tribes to Islam and consolidating power across southern Arabia.

Following Muhammad’s death in 632, under the leadership of Muhammad’s close friends and successors Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattab, the unified Arab armies conquered all of Mesopotamia, Syria, and Palestine. By 642, Egypt and Persia had fallen under Muslim control; by 711 Arab armies had taken all of North Africa as well as Spain. They pressed further north, but were finally defeated in the Battle of Tours (France) in 732.

All the lands they conquered converted to Islam, and although some places, like Spain, later reverted to Christianity, most of the territory remained under Arab control. Islam continued to spread, especially eastward, becoming a significant force in India, Central Asia, and Africa.

Hart points to a few reasons why Muhammad’s influence was greater than that of Jesus, even though Christianity is a more prevalent religion globally. First, Muhammad established the theology and religious practices of Islam himself, and took the lead in proselytizing. Furthermore, the holy scripture of Islam, the Quran, consists of the word of God as revealed to the Prophet himself, transcribed faithfully and compiled shortly after his death. In Christianity, however, it was Paul, not Jesus, who was responsible for developing the theology of Christianity and was its main proselytizer; the Christian Bible is derived from a mix of sources, and contains no firsthand account of Jesus’s teachings. Finally, Muhammad was the driving force behind the Arab conquests of the seventh century, which brought a lasting unity of religion and culture to all the Arab lands, making him one of the greatest political leaders of all time. The Arab conquests continue to play a key role in human history to this day. 243

It is important, however, to understand that the success of Islam was due to both the Messenger and the Message.

Muhammad Pre-Revelation

Muhammad was born in the last half of the sixth century CE, into the clan of Hashim, one of the most prominent clans of the Quraysh. (Muslim historians picked the year 570 CE as Muhammad’s birth year in order to institute a firm Islamic chronology.) The clan of Hashim was the custodian of the Ka’bah, and had the privilege of providing the pilgrims with water. Muhammad’s grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, was one of the most visionary rulers of Mecca and the most respected leader of the Quraysh. He had been the first merchant to organize his own independent trade caravans between Yemen and Syria.

Abdullah, Muhammad’s father, married Aminah, the daughter of the chief of the clan of Zuhra. Muhammad was orphaned at a young age, and was brought up by his paternal grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, and then by his uncle Abu Talib, who became the chief of the Banu Hashim. For the rest of his life, Abu Talib took care of Muhammad, supporting the Prophet even in the face of the strong opposition from the Quraysh, until he died. Abu Talib was greatly respected in Mecca, even though his business was failing, and he protected Muhammad from falling into debt and slavery—the fate of most orphans in Mecca. 244 Abu Talib provided Muhammad a home and the opportunity to work for his caravan. Hamzah, the youngest of Abd al-Muttalib’s sons, instructed Muhammad in martial arts, making him a skilled archer and competent swordsman. Muhammad’s uncle Abbas, a banker, was able to get him a job managing the caravans traveling north to Syria.

The young Muhammad was well-liked in Mecca. He was handsome, with a compact, solid body of average height. His hair and beard were thick and curly, and he had strikingly luminous expression and a smile of enormous charm. He was decisive and wholehearted in everything he did . . . When he did turn to speak to somebody, he used to swing his entire body around and address him full face. When he shook hands, he was never the first to withdraw his own. He inspired such confidence that he was known as al-Amin, the Reliable One. But his orphaned status constantly held him back. 245

Muhammad was talented and proved himself as skillful merchant who knew how to strike a deal. He was well known in the community for his honesty and morality, which earned him high respect in Meccan society. The turning point in his life was working as an agent for a rich widow, Khadijah bint Khuwaylid. His outstanding performance in his trading activity in the local markets and bazaars prompted her to hire him to lead one of her caravans to Syria. His first trip was a great success; he was able to make twice as much as she had hoped.

Khadijah, being a wealthy widow, received several marriage proposals. She realized, however, that her money was motivating these proposals. So she declined all the proposals that she received. She was a woman of great intelligence and strong character. Her business relationship with Muhammad made her recognize that money was not the greatest priority for him. She considered the idea of marrying Muhammad after she consulted her uncle Waraqa ibn Nawfal (one of the original four hanafi who later converted to Christianity), who recognized that Muhammad was destined to have great future.

Khadijah approached Muhammad indirectly, through a close friend, to establish whether he would be willing to marry her. 246 This conversation was followed by a direct communication between Khadijah and Muhammad, which ended in the formal marriage ceremony. Although polygamy was common in Arabia, Muhammad did not take a second wife while Khadijah was alive. Their happy union lasted for twenty-five years and resulted in six offspring. First was a boy named al-Qasim, followed by four daughters: Zaynab, Ruqayyah, Umm Kulthum, and Fatimah. Abdullah was the last child. Al-Qasim lived only few years, while Abdullah died in infancy. The first three daughters died in Muhammad’s life, in Madina, while Fatimah survived him and died six months after his death. Muhammad also adopted his uncle Abu Talib’s son Ali. Muhammad’s marriage to Khadijah elevated his status in the Meccan society. He was extremely successful in managing his wife’s business and enhancing her wealth. He became well known as an affluent merchant, respected for his fair and ethical conduct. Despite his great success in business and his improved social status, he did not become part of the ruling elite of Mecca. But Muhammad was distressed over the serious changes in the Meccan society as a result of the market economy and Mecca’s religio-economic system. He realized that the concentration of wealth in the hands of a few ruling families had not only altered the social and economic landscape of Mecca, but also destroyed the tribal ideals of social egalitarianism. He was troubled by the absence of any concern for the poor and marginalized, and the disappearance of the tribal ethic that held that the tribe was only as strong as its weakest members. He saw the Meccan society was stratified: at the top were the leaders of the ruling families of the Quraysh, and at the bottom were those with no protection such as orphans and widows. He was less interested in accumulating more wealth than in finding solutions.

Muhammad was able to diagnose the serious ills of the Meccan society. He was aware of the restlessness among the younger generation. The ruling elites had introduced class distinctions that were alien to the ideals of the muruwah (tribal honor system). The wealthier families lived beside the Ka’bah, while the less prosperous inhabited the suburbs and the mountainous region outside the city. Muhammad was convinced that the Quraysh had retained only the worst aspects of muruwah: recklessness, arrogance, and egotism that were morally destructive and could bring the city down. He was convinced that social reforms were overdue. 247

Muhammad was concerned about the religious situation in Mecca as well. He had had an early religious exposure to Hanifism when he was very young, and his trips to Syria put him in contact with Christian Arabs. Through his exposure to Hanifism, Judaism, and Christianity, he had been able to learn more about the concept of monotheism. Muhammad’s concern for Mecca’s troubles and problems made him seek solitude. He found a cave (called Hira) on one of the rocky hills outside Mecca. He began staying for several nights at a time in this cave, praying and meditating. During these solitary vigils he had strange experiences that eventually led to his revelation.

The Revelation of Muhammad

Muslims believe that the Revelation came upon the Prophet Muhammed one night in 610 CE, in the cave of Hira. As Muhammad was sitting alone, meditating, he experienced the most astonishing attack. Suddenly an invisible presence embraced him, crushing his chest. He struggled to free himself, but he could not move. The pressure in his chest increased until he could no longer breathe. As he surrendered his final breath, light filled the cave and a terrifying voice came loud and clear: “Recite!” Muhammad responded: “What shall I recite?” The invisible presence tightened its embrace and said, “Recite!” Muhammad asked again, “What shall I recite?” Once more the presence tightened its grip and once more repeated the command: “Recite!” Finally, as the pressure in his chest stopped, he felt these words enter his heart:

Read: In the name of your Lord who created. Created man from a clot.

Read: And your Lord is the Most Generous. He who taught by the pen.

Taught man what he never knew.

(Chapter 30, Surah 96: 1–5, Clot “Al-’alaq”)

This was a terrifying experience for Muhammad. He managed to make his way back home, frightened and trembling. As he arrived home, he asked Khadijah to wrap him up; she threw a cloak over him and held him tightly in her arms until the trembling stopped. When he calmed down, he explained to her what happened to him, then said: “Khadijah, I think that I have gone mad.” Khadijah replied: “This cannot be, my dear. God would not treat you thus, since He knows your truthfulness, your great trustworthiness, your fine character, and your kindness.” Khadijah then went to her cousin, Waraqa ibn Nawfal, who as a Christian was familiar with the scriptures. He recognized what Muhammad was experiencing. He assured her, saying, “He is a Prophet of this people; bid him be of good heart.”

The terrifying experience Muhammad had in the cave of Hira kept him in a state of confusion. An urgent issue occupied his mind and consciousness: What does this experience mean and what is next? Waraqa assured him that God was sending him a message, and that he was now God’s messenger. Over the following days he was waiting for answers and expecting another revelation. During this period of silence, he was very anxious and started doubting himself. Finally, when he was at his lowest, a second verse was sent down from heaven in the same violent manner. The new message was assured and affirmed that he was the messenger of God. Muhammad responded to God’s command, and began his mission.

The Initial Call to Islam (the Secret Call)

The initial call to Islam was a secret call targeting selected members of the community. This period lasted for approximately three years. Prophet Muhammad initiated his sacred, secret mission right from home and then moved to the people closely associated with him. Khadijah was the first to accept the new religion. His cousin, Ali ibn Abi Talib, who had been living with him since his early childhood; Zayd ibn Harith, his adopted son; and his intimate friend, Attiq ibn Uthman (known by his kunya, Abu Bakr As-Saddiq), accepted Islam next.

Abu Bakr was a well-respected merchant whose house was frequently visited by many people seeking his friendship and knowledge. He invited those whom he trusted to convert to Islam, which a good number of his friends and acquaintances did. Abu Bakr introduced to Muhammad a group of five men who became the main prominent leaders of the young Islamic state during Muhammad’s life and the years after.

The Muslims who accepted Islam during the first three years fall into three groups. The first group was composed of young men under thirty, from the most influential families of the most influential clans. This group was closely related to the men who actually held power in Mecca—those who became Muhammad’s strongest opponents. The second group was composed of young men, again under thirty, from less prominent families and clans. This group was not greatly different from the first, and the members of this group still had strong influence among their clans and families. Some members of this group were Arabs from outside of Mecca, attached to clans as “confederates.” The men in the first two groups came from the stratum of society immediately below the topmost stratum, and they felt the same discontent with Meccan society as Muhammad did. The third group was composed of a number of men who were outside the clan system, including foreigners of Byzantine or Abyssinian origin who might originally have come to Mecca as slaves. Usually these men were nominally under clan protection, but the clan was either unwilling or unable to protect them. Hence the early Muslims came from different clans and different social classes; many of them were women. 248

The early Muslims enjoyed equality and a brotherhood which was above blood relationships. They formed the nucleus of the community of believers which was soon to create the most noble society humanity had ever known in its long history. Their headquarters was the house of al-Arqam, the first Islamic school where the followers of the new religion received their instructions directly from the Prophet.

The Earliest Message of the Qur’an

The main theme of the early verses of the Quran is the goodness and power of God. He is the creator of humans. He is behind all forces of nature and all that exists around humans. He is the provider of everything humans need for sustenance and survival. He is ar-Rahman, “the most merciful,” and al-Akram, “the most generous.” Monotheism is very clear in the early verses of the Quran; however, there is no harsh attack or criticism of paganism. The main objective was revealing to the Meccans what kind of god Allah was: the Creator, the Merciful, the Compassionate.

It went further, reminding the Quraysh that Allah was the lord of the Ka’bah.

The second theme of the revelation that dominated the early verses was a social one. 249 The call for social and economic justice was accompanied by a warning: The Day of Judgment, when humans return to God for punishment or reward, would come.

Have you considered him who denies religion? It is he who mistreats the orphan. And does not encourage the feeding of the poor. So woe to those who pray. Those who are heedless of their prayer. Those who put on the appearance. And withhold the assistance.

(Chapter 30, Surah 107: 1–7, Common Kindness Al-Maoun)

For three years, Muhammad kept a low profile, preaching to only selected groups of people. Three years after the revelation had begun, Allah instructed him to deliver the message to the Hashim clan. He reached out to members of the tribe on different occasions, but failed to convince them to accept Islam. He only succeeded in getting a pledge of protection from his uncle, Abu Talib.

The Public Call

After the Prophet became sure of Abu Talib’s commitment to his support and protection, he expanded his preaching mission to include the entire Meccan community. He preached the oneness of God, and criticized the belief in and worthlessness of their idols. Not a single voice was raised in praise after he spoke.

Muhammad’s public message was a significant event in the history of Islam. It was the beginning of social reform in Arab society. The call for monotheism did not mean just the substitution of one god for the collection of all the idols housed in the Ka’bah, but also meant a complete change in the social, cultural, and political life of Meccan society. 250

Muhammad was persistent in his efforts to deliver his message to the Quraysh. He spoke to Meccans whenever he passed by a gathering of the idolaters. Then he began worshipping Allah before their eyes in the Ka’bah, and reciting the verses of the Quran aloud. Few of the Meccans responded to his call and accepted Islam.

Initially, the chiefs of Mecca did not take any action against Muhammad’s preaching activities. However, as the Prophet increased his attacks against their pagan faith, they began to think that the matter was too serious to be ignored. Abu Talib, who continued to follow the religion of his people, calmed them down; however, he did not promise them much. The Quraysh knew that Muhammad intended to spread his message among the pilgrims who flocked to the Ka’bah from all over Arabia. So they set out to formulate a plan for how to warn the arriving pilgrims against Muhammad’s preaching activities. They decided on a strategy aimed at preempting Muhammad’s preaching by circulating fierce propaganda accusing him of being a sorcerer, and sometimes describing him as a madman.

Muhammad was extremely active during the pilgrimage season, moving from one camp to the other, eloquently delivering his message. Although he did not gain many followers, as most pilgrims pledged their support to the chiefs of the Quraysh, he managed to create a stir in the whole area. Those people who listened to Muhammad carried the news to their tribes when they went back. Thus the Quraysh’s plan failed, and unintentionally allowed all of Arabia to learn about the new religion.

The Government of Mecca

In 569 CE, when Muhammad was born, Mecca was a tiny city-state governed by a city council composed of ten members representing the ten tribes of the city. These members were the chiefs of the tribes. Each chief was selected by the elders of the tribe for life, and upon his death a new chief was selected in the same manner. Each member of the city council was responsible for specific function. Upon the death of that member, his responsibility was inherited by the new appointee. For example, the Banu Hashim were responsible for providing water to the pilgrims and were the custodians of the well of Zamzam. Below is a list of the different municipal functions for which the ten tribes of Mecca were responsible, along with the names of Muhammad’s supporters whose tribes were responsible for those functions:

  1. Drinking water for pilgrims (Muhammad’s family)
  2. Banner in an independent war (Abu Sufyan’s family)
  3. Tax to aid pilgrims
  4. Flag during a war along with allies, and house of parliament (Mus’ab ibn Umair’s family)
  5. Senate
  6. Justice in case of tort (Abu Bakr’s family)
  7. Cavalry during war (Khalid ibn al-Walid’s family)
  8. Foreign relations (Umar ibn al Khattab’s family)
  9. Deciding choice by holy arrows
  10. Justice of penal cases, and guardianship of offerings the temple of the Ka’bah 251

Before Islam, the Prophet had participated in the life of his community as a respectful and loyal citizen of Mecca. But when Islam began, the situation changed: he and his slowly increasing number of followers managed their own affairs, religious and non-religious. The Muslims referred to the Prophet and not to the municipal council for any of their concerns or affairs; their situation was a “State in a State.”

The Shahada

It was perhaps at this time that new converts were required to utter the declaration of their faith recited by all Muslims today: the Shahadah. It goes as follows:

Bear witness that there is no God but Allah and that Muhammad is his Messenger.

The Shahada was a challenge to the Quraysh. Monotheism was nothing new; it was espoused by the Jews and Christians, as well as the hanifs. But Muhammad’s message was different: Muslims must not only refuse to venerate the idols, but must also ensure that nothing should distract them from their commitment to God alone. Wealth, tribe, family, material properties, and even such noble ideas as patriotism must take second place. Muhammad was declaring to Mecca that the God of heaven and earth required no intermediaries whatsoever, but could be reached by anyone. Thus the idols housed in the sanctuary, and the sanctuary itself, insofar as it was a repository for gods, were utterly useless. And if the Ka’bah was useless, then there was no more reason for Mecca’s supremacy as either the religious or the economic center of Arabia. Believing in Allah the creator required human beings to imitate Him in all their dealings; instead of despising and oppressing vulnerable people, they should behave like Allah and spread over them the wings of tenderness. Justice of penal cases, and guardianship of offerings the temple of the Ka’bah 252

God condemned the behavior of the Quraysh’s elders, who were snobbish and arrogant. They imagined that they were superior to the poor and the humbler people of Mecca, whom they considered second-class citizens. Instead of realizing their dependence on God, they regarded themselves as self-reliant, and refused to bow to Allah. They were bursting with self-importance , addressing others in an offensive manner, and flying into a violent rage if others disagreed with them. They were convinced that their way of life was ideal. Their hearts were veiled, rusted over, sealed, and locked. Justice of penal cases, and guardianship of offerings the temple of the Ka’bah 253

The Ethics of Islam

God urges Muslims to behave with hilm, a traditional Arab virtue. Men and women of hilm are forbearing, patient, and merciful. They can control their anger and remain calm in the most difficult circumstances instead of exploding with rage. They are slow to retaliate, they do not hit back when they suffer injury, but leave revenge to God. Hilm inspires positive action: to look after the weak and disadvantaged, liberate their slaves, counsel each other to patience and compassion, and feed the destitute, even when one is hungry oneself. Muslims must always behave with consummate gentleness and courtesy. 254 They are to respect their parents and the sacrifices they made, taking care of them in their old age.

Your Lord has commanded that you should worship none but Him, and that you be good to your parents. If either of them or both of them reach old age with you, do not say to them a word of disrespect, nor scold them, but say to them kind words.

And lower to them the wing of humility, out of mercy, and say, “My Lord, have mercy on them, as they raised me when I was a child.”

(Chapter 15, Surah 17: 23–24, the Night Journey)

The servants of the Merciful are those who walk the earth in humility, and when the arrogant address them, they say, “Peace.”

And those who, when they spend, are neither wasteful nor stingy, but choose a middle course between that.

And those who do not implore besides Allah any other god, and do not kill the soul which Allah has made sacred—except in pursuit of justice— and do not commit adultery. Whoever does that will face penalties.

And those who do not bear false witness; and when they come across indecencies, they pass by with dignity.

(Chapter 19, Surah 25: 63, 67–68, 72, the Differentiation)

All efforts to dissuade the Prophet from preaching his message failed; as a result, the Meccans began a campaign of terror and persecution against Muslims. As the Prophet continued preaching his message, and attacking the beliefs and gods of the Quraysh, Mecca’s elders were determined to fight Muhammad and his new religion fiercely.

As Muhammad continued his active campaign of spreading the message of Islam, the Meccan establishment intensified their campaign of terror against the followers of the new religion. As mentioned earlier, the early Muslims were drawn from all clans; among them were the poor, the slaves, and the deprived, as well as open-minded and liberal-thinking individuals from the powerful classes. Some of the early Muslims escaped physical persecution, as they were protected by their clans. However they were subjected to taunts and ridicule. Those who belonged to the lower class were even subjected to physical harm.

As persecution intensified, Muhammad considered the option of migration of the most vulnerable Muslims to Abyssinia. The Christian king of Abyssinia was known to be fair. A group of twelve men and four women left Mecca for Ethiopia in the fifth year of the Prophet. They slipped out of Mecca under the heavy curtain of a dark night and headed for the sea, where two boats happened to be sailing to Abyssinia.

The Conversion of Hamza and Umar

The gradual conversion of distinguished Meccan members, like Muhammad’s uncle Hamza and the Quraysh leader Umar, who were men of high position and prestige, enhanced the Prophet’s position. The conversion of Umar was a real triumph for the cause of Islam. So great and instant was the effect of his conversion on the situation that the believers who had until then worshipped Allah within their four walls in secret now assembled and performed their rites of worship openly in the Holy Sanctuary itself. This raised their spirits; at the same time it created anxiety and uneasiness among the Quraysh. Islam’s followers might be few in number, but they had strength of character and powerful new converts. 255

The Quraysh Negotiate with Muhammad

The elders of the Quraysh developed a plan for restraining Muhammad that depended on temptation. A delegation headed by two men known for their diplomatic talent went to Muhammad, making him what they considered to be an attractive offer: “We will make you the wealthiest of us all, and we will give you the prettiest of our virgin daughters to marry. We will ask of you nothing in return except to stop abusing our gods and ridiculing our practices.” They were not surprised when Muhammad rejected their offer. Deep down, the chiefs recognized the strength of the Prophet’s character and the truthfulness of his message. They also realized that the social and economic structure of the Meccan society that had brought them all the privileges they enjoyed would not last forever, as resistance to Muhammad’s message was not expected to continue.

As the Quraysh failed to achieve their goals through negotiations with Muhammad, they escalated their ruthless campaign of repression of the Muslims. Those who lacked influential support and protection suffered the most. Those who enjoyed protection were not immune, either: they were placed under enormous physical and mental pressure. The weak and vulnerable were subjected to intense torture aimed at forcing them to convert back to paganism. Abdullah ibn Abbas, the Prophet’s cousin, described the torture methods utilized against the vulnerable Muslims: “They used to beat their victims very badly, and allow them nothing to eat or drink, until they could not even sit up. They inflicted so much pain that the victim would give or say anything he was asked just to win a short rest.” 256

Social and Economic Boycott (Seventh through Ninth Years of the Revelation)

The Meccan leaders realized that there could be no chance for an agreement with the Muslim community. At the same time they realized that their persecution measures had failed to hold back the growth of this community. They also had failed to persuade Abu Talib to abandon his nephew. So they held a meeting in which they formed a confederation and decided to impose a social and economic boycott against the Banu Hashim and the Banu Muttalib clans. They all took an oath not to have any business dealings with them nor any sort of intermarriage, social relations, visits, or even verbal contact until the Prophet was given up to them to be killed. This pact was put in writing in the form of a treaty that was attached to the wall of the Ka’bah. Everyone in the Banu Hashim and Banu Muttalib clans was boycotted, whether they were believers or disbelievers, except for Abu Lahab.

In response to this treaty, Abu Talib withdrew to a valley on the eastern outskirts of Mecca. The Banu Hashim and Banu Muttalib joined him. All the Hashimite clan, including the non-Muslims among them, along with Muslims of other tribes, suffered a great deal as a result of the boycott. The situation became very grave as month after month went by with no food supplies reaching the boycotted quarters. The Muslims and the Hashimites were starving. Occasionally there was some relief as kind-hearted people smuggled supplies under cover of darkness. The hardship continued for nearly three years. Finally, the members of the community recognized the inhumanity of the boycott and rescinded the treaty.

Thus the boycott ended after three years of excessive hardship, during which the Muslim community suffered greatly but became stronger. Despite the boycott, new recruits joined the Muslim community and proved to be strong and highly dedicated believers.

A Last Attempt at Negotiations

Shortly after the end of the boycott, Abu Talib became ill. The Quraysh leaders, realizing that the Muslim community had gained strength by having more influential members such as Hamzah and Umar, and others from all the Quraysh clans, made another attempt to negotiate with Muhammad. This interaction between the Prophet Muhammad and the leaders of the Quraysh has been reported in all biographies, including those of Ibn Hisham and Ibn Ishaq. It is not clear whether the Prophet elaborated and explained to them how the declaration of the Oneness of God would grant them the supremacy over Arabs and non-Arabs. Muhammad’s message was that social justice was demanded by God the creator, who would have the final word on the Judgment Day. His message aimed at establishing justice in Arabia and beyond. He was the messenger for all humanity. He was confident that his message would prevail in Arabia. He was also confident that the Muslim community of Arabia would spread justice throughout the world and that the Arabs would lead a universal revolution aimed at justice for all.

The leaders of the Quraysh were concerned about the privileges that they had achieved by controlling the Ka’bah that hosted all the deities in Arabia, and the position of Mecca as the trade center of Arabia. Muhammad, who had the vision of changing the world by establishing justice for all, was confident that the Muslim community of Arabia would lead the world. He was inviting the Quraysh to be part of this vision.

The Deaths of Abu Talib and Khadijah (Tenth Year of Revelation)

Shortly after the meeting with the leaders of the Quraysh, Muhammad lost his uncle, Abu Talib, who had taken care of him since he was eight years old and treated him like his own son. Abu Talib was the protector who supported Muhammad against the Quraysh’s leaders when he needed protection, and did not yield to the Quraysh’s demands and pressure to desert his nephew. Now, after his death, those leaders started to abuse Muhammad and humiliate him publicly. Abu Lahab, the Prophet’s own uncle, joined them in their stiff opposition and persecution. The majority of the Hashimites who had not joined Islam and continued with their pagan beliefs elected to withhold their support from Muhammad, which they had previously provided on grounds of tribal loyalty.

Within five weeks of Abu Talib’s death, the Prophet suffered another great loss when his wife, Khadijah, died. She was a kind, loving wife who had comforted him throughout their life together. She was the first to believe in Islam when he received the message, and from that day forward she had been his main supporter.

The deaths of Abu Talib and Khadijah meant that Muhammad lost both internal and external support. The death of Abu Talib made him more vulnerable to the Quraysh’s attacks. At the same time, the humiliation and harm he was receiving would have been more tolerable if Khadijah had been alive to comfort him. This situation prompted him to explore new sources of support. He thought that seeking protection outside Mecca would be the answer, so he traveled to Ta’if, a mountainous town about 110 kilometers to the north, asking for support and protection. The Prophet approached the leaders of the Thaqif (Ta’if’s tribe) calling on them to believe in God and to convert to Islam. For ten days he spoke to one chief after another. None gave him a word of encouragement or support; on the contrary, they expelled him from their town. 257

Muhammad’s failed trip to Ta’if taught him an important lesson: he must not venture outside Mecca until he could secure a good reception for his message that would guarantee his safety and the safety of his followers.

The Prophet’s weak position affected other Muslims, especially the more vulnerable and unprotected. Even the wealthy were affected by the boycott, as it exhausted their assets and businesses. Abu Bakr, for example, lost most of his wealth, and his business declined to the point of being bankrupt. Abu Bakr’s Taym clan was too weak to protect him. Hence Abu Bakr considered migrating to Abyssinia. Ibn Dughunnah, one of the Bedouin allies of the Quraysh, heard what happened to Abu Bakr and took him under his own protection. 258

The Night Journey to Jerusalem (Eleventh Year of Revelation)

The losses of Abu Talib and Khadijah and the failure at Ta’if were devastating events. It is fair to say that this period was the most difficult time of Muhammad’s life. He was very depressed, as he could no longer rely on his own clan, the Hashimites, for support. However, his firm belief that God was looking after him and would always protect him kept his head high and his morale strong. This belief reached its highest level when he had the most marvelous experience of his life. One night, as he was asleep in the home of his cousin, Umm Hani bint Abi Talib, in Mecca, the angel Gabriel came and woke him up and took him by the hand to the sanctuary, where he found an animal with two wings. Both Muhammad and Gabriel rode the animal, which was called Al-Buraq (a name derived from barq, meaning lightning). In no time, Al-Buraq flew them to Jerusalem in Palestine.

In Jerusalem, Muhammad met Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other noble prophets and led them all in prayer. Following this gathering, the Prophet ascended to heaven, where he met other prophets who preached the message of God’s Oneness to mankind. In his journey he saw examples of the suffering of those who would be condemned to Hell. He was then allowed into paradise and saw examples of those who would be rewarded for their deeds with the pleasures of paradise. While he was in paradise, he was informed by God of the obligatory prayers he and his followers were expected to offer. Then the Prophet returned to his cousin’s home in Mecca just before dawn. The whole journey lasted only part of the night. 259

The significance of this journey, whether physical or spiritual, had a great impact on the message of Islam. The Quran clearly states the aim and purpose of the journey. Muhammad had the chance to see some of God’s signs and his real might at a point of his life when he was experiencing extreme difficulties. The night journey marked the end of any sense of despair resulting from such difficulties. From that point on Muhammad’s life was free of any feelings of weakness, unaffected by adversity; he was quite certain, to the last day of his life, that he would be victorious as long as he and his followers were true believers.

Glory to Him who journeyed His servant by night, from the Sacred Mosque, to the farthest Mosque, whose precincts We have blessed, in order to show him of Our wonders. He is the Listener, the Beholder.

(Chapter 15, Surah 17:1, the Night Journey)

The night journey has a great meaning: The fact that Muhammad led the other prophets in prayer signified the concept that the message of all the prophets is the same. It emphasized the continuity of these messages and affirmed the fact that the message of Islam is for mankind, not for Arabs alone.

The Quran emphasized this shared vision. God makes it clear that the faithful must believe in the revelation of every single one of God’s messengers:

Say, “We [Muslims] believe in Allah, and in what was revealed to us; and in what was revealed to Abraham, and Ishmael, and Isaac, and Jacob, and the Patriarchs; and in what was given to Moses, and Jesus, and the prophets from their Lord. We make no distinction between any of them, and to Him we submit.”

(Chapter 3, Surah 3:84, the Family of Imran)

The Quran is simply a confirmation of the previous scriptures, the Torah and the Gospel:

Those who have belief, and the Jews, and the Sabians, and the Christians— whoever believes in Allah and the Last Day, and does what is right— they have nothing to fear, nor shall they grieve.

(Chapter 6, Surah 5:69, the Feast)

For each of you We have assigned a law and a method. Had Allah willed, He could have made you a single nation, but He tests you through what He has given you. So compete in righteousness. To Allah is your return, all of you; then He will inform you of what you had disputed.

(Chapter 6, Surah 5:48, the Feast)

God was not the exclusive property of one tradition, but was the source of all human knowledge: “God is the light of the heaven and the earth.” The divine light could not be confined to any individual lamp, but was common to all, enshrined in every one of them:

Allah is the Light of the heavens and earth. The allegory of His light is that of a pillar on which is a lamp. The lamp is within a glass. The glass is like a brilliant planet, fueled by a blessed tree, an olive tree, neither eastern nor western. Its oil would almost illuminate, even if no fire has touched it. Light upon Light. Allah guides whomever He wills. Allah thus cites the parables for the people. Allah is cognizant of everything.

(Chapter 18, Surah 24:35, the Light)

A New Strategy: Moving to a New Community

During the tenth year of his revelation, Muhammad faced several events that influenced his thinking and prompted him to formulate new plans. The tenth year witnessed the death of Abu Talib and Khadijah. This significant loss created a serious situation for Muhammad and his followers. His attempt to find protection and support in Tai’f failed. His life was threatened as he lost the protection of the Banu Hashim (Hashimites), which forced him to seek protection from another clan in Mecca. In the Prophet’s mind this was a temporary measure and a transitional period until he was able to develop new strategy. He realized that he had reached a dead end in Mecca, and he must find an alternative city or tribe to achieve a breakthrough. This was the same thinking behind his trip to the city of Ta’if. However, Muhammad had learned a very important lesson from his experience with the Thaqif tribe: that he must ensure a good reception for his message before he ventured into a new location.

The pilgrimage season was the natural time for recruitment. In the past, Muhammad had succeeded in bringing several individuals to Islam during that time. The new plan was to recruit tribes and not just individuals. The pilgrims from the different tribes formed their own camps and remained together throughout their stay around Mecca. So he went to each camp, addressing the entire tribe. However, he also continued to approach individuals who enjoyed a position of respect among their people.

The First Aqabah Pledge (Twelfth Year of the Revelation)

During the pilgrimage season of the twelfth year of the revelation, the Prophet met a group of six men from the Khazraj tribe who came from Yathrib (later Medina). They met at a place called Aqabah, at Mina, where pilgrims would encamp for three days. He outlined to them the principles of Islam and read them a passage from the Quran. The beliefs he described are summarized in the following surah (112) from the Quran, Surah Al-Ikhlas (Sincerity):

In the name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful:
Say he is God, the one. God, the Absolute.
He begets not, nor was He begotten.
And there is nothing comparable to Him.

He asked them to believe in God as the only deity to be worshipped. The six men accepted the Prophet’s call and declared their belief in God and the message of Islam and asked for his help mediating hostilities between tribes. 260

The six emissaries carried the Prophet’s message to their own people, who received it positively. Those who adopted the new religion were hopeful that the Prophet and his message would be the catalyst that they needed in order to achieve peace, reconciliation, and unity in their city. 261

The Aws and Khazraj tribes of Yathrib were familiar with the concept of monotheism through their contact with the Jews. The idea of monotheism appealed to them; however, they had not converted to Judaism because of the arrogance of Jews who looked down at the non-Jewish tribes, stating that Judaism was the religion of the elite only. So it became clear to Muhammad that Yathrib was a fertile environment for the spread of Islam.

During the next pilgrimage season, in 621 CE, the original six were joined by another group of six men to meet Muhammad in the same place at Aqabah. At this meeting, the Prophet entered into a covenant with the twelve men—ten from the Khazraj tribe and two from the Aws tribe. The twelve men pledged “to worship no deity other than God, to commit neither theft, nor adultery, nor child-murder, to utter no monstrous falsehood of their own invention, and never to disobey the Prophet over anything which was just or reasonable.” 262

The Prophet sent Mus’ab ibn Umayr to Yathrib with the new followers. His mission was to educate the new Muslims in their new faith and to teach them the Quran. He was to lead the Muslims in prayer and to call other people to adopt Islam. Mus’ab stayed with As’ad ibn Zurarah, a Khazraj with immediate relatives from the Aws. During the following months, Mus’ab gathered a lot of information about the people of Yathrib, and quickly learned how to deal with both tribes. He succeeded in gaining the trust and respect of the new followers of Islam, which allowed him to spread Muhammad’s message rapidly. With his genial temperament, he was able to bring to the new faith several influential leaders of the city, among them the most prominent figures of the Abd al-Ashal clan, a branch of the Aws tribe. A prominent figure from the clan of Salamah accepted Islam as well.

Mus’ab returned to Mecca shortly before the next pilgrimage season to report to Muhammad the good news that members of all the clans and families of Yathrib had joined Islam. He provided the Prophet with valuable information about the composition of the city and the relationships among the different clans of both tribes. This information was highly valuable for Muhammad to determine whether Yathrib was a suitable place for the establishment of the first Islamic state. The Prophet recognized the problems that would need to be addressed if he decided to make Yathrib his new city. He had to deal with the non-Muslims in the city who might form a camp of resistance to Islam and figure out how to bring them gradually to his side. He also needed to prepare himself for all possible reactions from the Jewish population of the city. In addition, he recognized the urgency of developing an economic plan to provide for the Muslims who would immigrate from Mecca. Muhammad also realized another important issue to be addressed: how to deal with the Quraysh’s reaction toward the new Muslim state in Yathrib.

As the Prophet listed the above issues, he reached the conclusion that Yathrib was suited to host the new state. The two tribes of Yathrib were considered the maternal uncles of the Prophet: his grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, had been born to a woman from the clan of al-Najjar. The city was already embracing Islam; a good number of followers were coming to Mecca to meet with him. The city was also easily defensible, as it had natural fortifications: on both the eastern and western sides there were two extended areas of volcanic stones that were difficult to traverse on foot, horse, or camel. Only its northern side offered access to attackers; however, a small number of guard units would be sufficient to intercept a large army. The Aws and Khazraj tribes were known for their pride, integrity, bravery, and high standard of military excellence. When Muhammad analyzed all the available information, he became quite sure that Yathrib was where his followers should emigrate. Logically the first step would be to prepare a meeting with the new followers who had arrived in Mecca as pilgrims. This meeting was planned to take place at Aqabah on the last night of pilgrimage. As the Prophet made up his mind to move to Yathrib and establish a state for Muslims there, he confided his plans to his uncle al-Abbas, who was not yet a Muslim, and invited him to the meeting.

The Second Aqabah Pledge (Thirteenth Year of Revelation)

In 622 CE, the thirteenth year of the revelation, seventy-three men and two women from Yathrib quietly met with Muhammad in the middle of the night. Al-Abbas, Muhammad’s uncle, addressed the Muslims who came from Yathrib:

You know how highly we rate Muhammad. We have protected him against our own people, with whom we share the same opinion of his call. He is indeed well protected within his own people and in his own city. Nevertheless, he is determined to join you. If you feel that you will indeed fulfill your pledges to him and will indeed protect him from his enemies, you are welcome to do as you please. Should you, however, feel that you may let him down, after having taken him away to your city, it would be better for everyone if you decide here and now to leave him alone, for he is well looked after in his hometown. 263

The answer from the attendants was clear: “We have truly understood what you have said.” Then they turned to Muhammad and invited him to lay down his conditions.

The Prophet gave a brief address, starting with a passage from the Quran, followed by brief explanation of the message of Islam, and ending his speech with his conditions: “You pledge to me that you will protect me as you protect your own womenfolk and your own children.”

The pledge came from one of the leading figures of Yathrib, Al-Bara ibn Ma’rur: “By Him who has given you the message of the truth, we will defend you as we defend our women. Take up our pledges, for we are the children of war and the best people with arms.”

They all said, without hesitation: “We are committed, come what may.” Then, addressing the Prophet: “What will our reward be if we honor our commitments?” The Prophet said: “Paradise.” Then they all shook hands with the Prophet, concluding the deal.

Yathrib in the Seventh Century CE

Yathrib was situated in an oasis, about thirty square kilometers, surrounded by volcanic rocks and uncultivable stony land. Yathrib was different from Mecca: it was not a large city, but a series of hamlets and small villages, each occupied by a different clan. In the seventh century CE, it was a thriving agricultural oasis. The inhabitants of the oasis were a mixed population of Jewish tribes and pagan Arab tribes. A large Jewish community had lived in the city over several centuries. They were mostly Arabs who had been converted to Judaism in the first century CE by Jewish preachers who had arrived in Arabia from Palestine or Mesopotamia. They preserved a separate religious identity; in other ways, however, they were similar to other pagan Arabs. There were about twenty Jewish tribes, and they did not live as a united Jewish community but acted as individual clans who formed allegiances with non-Jewish Arab clans. Over time, the Jewish settlers had cultivated the oasis and established a very prosperous community. The Jews occupied the most fertile agricultural lands and became wealthy as masters of Arabia’s most valuable crop, dates. They were also skilled jewelers, clothiers, arms makers, and vintners (Jewish wine was considered the best in the peninsula). But Yathrib’s dates were what made the Jews very rich. The Jewish tribes controlled the city’s sole market, which allowed them to enjoy a total monopoly over the entire economy. 264

The Jewish tribes lived in complete separation from each other; each tribe had its own quarters, which included an open agricultural section and another fortified one. The Jewish forts provided protected shelters for women and children in times of war. The forts were also used as barns for the storage of agricultural products, and as a safe storage place for weapons as well. Temples and schools were usually located in the forts.

During the sixth century CE, the tribe of Bani Qayla had emigrated from South Arabia (Yemen) and settled in Yathrib. There were several reasons for the emigration, including the conquest of Yemen by the Abyssinians and the major economic setback following the collapse of the Mar’ib dam. This tribe consisted of two clans, the Aws and the Khazraj, which evolved into two separate tribes over time. Although the Aws and Khazraj tribes arrived at the oasis many centuries after the settlement of the Arab tribes who adopted Judaism, they gradually acquired agricultural land and built their own fortresses, and by the early seventh century had become the dominant force in the oasis. 265

The largest of the Jewish tribes were the Qurayzah, the al-Nadir, and the Qaynuqa. Relations between these tribes were not peaceful, and they often were at war with each other. Both the al-Nadir and the Qurayzah were allied with the Aws. 266

The Aws clans settled in the more fertile southern and eastern areas of Yathrib, which were known as the upper part, while the Khazraj clans settled in the less fertile central and northern areas which were known as the lower part. The Aws and the Khazraj were engaged in almost continuous military conflicts and exhausting wars over the years, which weakened them both. The Jewish tribes played a major part in perpetuating the hostilities between the two Arab tribes in order to keep them in a state of exhaustion and weakness. 267

The non-Jewish residents of Yathrib suffered from the Jewish control over their city’s economy, especially when they needed to borrow money. The Jews insisted on secured loans where the borrowers were obliged to pledge their personal property as security for repayment of the loan, and sometimes the creditors forced the borrowers to pledge their women and children. Such transactions caused hatred between the mortgagees and the mortgagors. Most people in Madina detested the Jews for these practices and their usuriousness and profiteering. 268

Yathrib was clearly completely different from Mecca: while Mecca had a single faith and a single community, Yathrib had different faiths, cultures, and communities who lived side by side. Mecca was a large, unified city, while in Yathrib there were multiple quarters separated from each other by significant fortifications and natural barriers. Economically, the two cities were completely different. Mecca’s economy was dependent upon commerce. Although some of Yathrib’s inhabitants engaged in trade, the majority were farmers, making a living from dates and other agricultural products. Unlike the Quraysh, Yathrib’s tribes retained more of the old badawah values, for better and for worse. They continued to believe in muruwah, but at the same time were engaged in hostilities with other tribes outside their oasis or even among themselves. In short, life in Yathrib was much more complicated than in Mecca.

At the time of Muhammad’s revelation, Mecca was an organized city-state that had some twenty-five public offices, including different departments such as the army, the revenue department, the Ka’bah, the foreign affairs department, and the department for the administration of justice. Mecca was neither a monarchy nor a republic. The city was governed by a council composed of ten members representing the ten principal tribes in town. The different functions of the municipality were decided among the ten tribes. The chief of each tribe was selected for life by the members of the tribe.

In contrast, Yathrib was in a state of anarchy where tribalism prevailed. The population was divided into numerous Arab tribes and clans and about twenty Jewish tribes. These tribes and clans had been engaged in hostilities among themselves over several generations. At the time of the second Aqaba Pledge, Yathrib’s pilgrims were looking forward to having the Prophet move to their city in order to help them establish peace and order. 269

Emigration to Madina (622 CE)

Shortly after the second Aqaba Pledge, Muhammad told the Muslims of Mecca that they were now welcome in Yathrib, and they could start emigrating to their Muslim city. Emigration took place gradually and in small numbers, with the people moving in the middle of the night. As soon as a Muslim arrived from Mecca, he immediately was settled with one of the Muslims of Yathrib. Although the immigration happened in secret, the Meccans soon realized what happened and became alarmed: a new Muslim community was now forming in another city protected by other tribes. Hence, the leaders of the Quraysh adopted a policy of preventing Muslims from leaving their city, and even began chasing them if they managed to escape in order to bring them back. However, the majority managed to escape and reached their final destination in Yathrib. The Prophet, who was awaiting God’s instructions for when to leave Mecca, asked his friend Abu Bakr and his cousin Ali to stay behind with him. The Quraysh leaders realized that if Muhammad escaped from Mecca to Yathrib— hence called Madina—he would become a great threat to their authority in Arabia. Therefore they met at Dar al-Nadwah to discuss this matter. After a lengthy debate, they settled on a plan to kill Muhammad in a manner that involved participation of every tribe to spread the blood libel. They decided to carry out their assassination plot the same night. While Muhammad had been under the protection of al-Mut’im ibn Adiy since his trip to Ta’if, that noble gentleman had died in August of 622 CE, just prior to the Quraysh’s meeting at Dar al-Nadwah, leaving Muhammad with no protection.

The Prophet learned of their plan and executed his own counter-operation to escape. Shortly before midday, he went to Abu Bakr and asked him to prepare two camels for their departure. It was agreed that Muhammad would come to Abu Bakr’s house at midnight, and the two of them would immediately start their journey to Yathrib. Ali was to sleep in the Prophet’s bed so that the assassins watching Muhammad’s house would imagine that the Prophet was in bed. Ali was given the responsibility of returning the deposits to those who had given them to Muhammad for safekeeping; many pagan Meccans had entrusted the Prophet with their valuables.

At midnight, as sleep overpowered the assassins, the Prophet left his house and went straight to Abu Bakr, and the two men started their journey. They headed south, opposite of the direction of Yathrib, and stayed in the cave of Mount Thawr for three days before they took off toward their final destination.

When the Quraysh leaders arrived at the Prophet’s house in the morning, they realized that Muhammad had escaped. On forcing their way into the house, they were shocked to find out that the man lying in bed was Ali. Immediately, several groups of horsemen were dispatched to chase and capture Muhammad. By then Muhammad and Abu Bakr were safe in their cave south of Mecca. After three days, Muhammad and Abu Bakr resumed their journey to Yathrib, taking all necessary precautions to evade the Quraysh agents who were chasing them. Muhammad was aware that almost everyone in Arabia was watching for them and hoping to receive the Quraysh’s reward if they captured him.

The Prophet’s vision of the total victory of his mission never faded, even when he was being chased by the Quraysh and their spies. His goal from the start of his mission had been to spread the message of Islam to all of Arabia and beyond. While he was evading his enemy, following a zigzag line close to the Red Sea coast, instead of the traditional route to Yathrib, he was still sure of complete victory.

After twelve days of travel across some five hundred kilometers, the Prophet and his companion Abu Bakr reached the village of Quba on the southern outskirts of Yathrib. The Prophet spent a few days in Quba, during which he laid down the foundations of the first mosque in Islam. Ali ibn Abu Talib, who had been left behind in Mecca to take care of what Muhammad had assigned to him, arrived in Quba and joined the Prophet and Abu Bakr in their march to Yathrib. When they arrived at the valley of Ranuna, a group of about 100 men fully dressed in battle attire joined them to escort the Prophet to Yathrib. The Prophet entered the city on the twelfth day of the lunar month of Rab’i al-Awal in the year that was to become the first in the Islamic calendar. This date has been calculated to correspond to September 27, 622 CE. As the Prophet made his way through the city, every clan invited him to be their guest. He did not want to offend anybody, so he asked them to let his camel go on her own. His camel continued to walk in the streets and alleys until she finally stopped at a courtyard belonging to two orphans, Sahl and Suhayl, who were under the guardianship of As’ad ibn Zurarah. The orphans offered their property as a gift, but the Prophet insisted on paying for the land, as he intended to build a mosque for the city and a house for himself and his family on this property. This land happened to be near the home of Abu Ayyub, who immediately took the Prophet’s luggage into his home. Muhammad stayed at Abu Ayyub’s house until the completion of the construction of the mosque and the house. From the moment the Prophet arrived in Yathrib, the city became known as Madina al-Munawwarah, or the City of Light. 270 The first project that got the attention of the Prophet after he arrived in Madina was the building of a mosque. The building, completed with the help of the community and his own participation, was completed in April of 623 CE, about seven months after the emigration. On the northern wall, a stone marked the qibla (the direction of prayer), orienting the people toward Jerusalem, a tradition that Muhammad had initiated following his night journey to Jerusalem. The mosque was a square building about sixty-five meters long each way. Two rooms were built next to the mosque for the Prophet to use as a home.

Establishing the Umma

After accepting the protection of the people of Yathrib in the Second Aqabah, Muhammad established a new socioreligious community that united all people regardless of their previous tribal origin. Muhammad called this new community the Umma. By enacting a series of radical religious, social, and economic reforms, he was able to build a new society that had never been seen before in Arabia; it was completely different from the traditional tribal society. The only way to become a member of a tribe was to be born into it. To be a member of the Umma, you were required only to declare the Shahada (as previously noted, this is the profession of faith; the first and most important pillar of Islam): “There is no God but God, and Muhammad is God’s Messenger.” This meant that a theological statement became an oath of allegiance to the new society and its ideology. And because neither ethnicity nor culture nor race nor kinship mattered in Islam, the Umma had an almost unlimited capacity for growth through conversion. 271

As the leader of the Umma, Muhammad had the authority and power to implement all the necessary reforms to unite the Umma. He was interested in creating a society built on the principle of hilm (forbearance) and forgiveness. Such principles are essential for building a strong, cohesive community where all members are prepared to forgive each other and are ready to defend their community collectively. He was successful in strengthening the unity between the Emigrants and the Helpers, and between the Aws and the Khazraj—the major divisions in the Umma.

Although the Emigrants (the Muhajirun ) were well received in Madina, they were not used to the type of life of their new city; they were mostly merchants, like the rest of the Quraysh, while the well-to-do Muslim inhabitants of Madina, the Ansar were mostly farmers. Such differences required a great deal of adjustment. To assist in this matter, the Prophet called for a general meeting of the Ansar and told them that each head of the family should take one Meccan family, on the condition that members of the two families would jointly work, jointly earn, and jointly share. Such an arrangement established a special bond of brotherhood. It was not just a spiritual bond; it evolved into something much stronger than any tribal or family relationship. The members of the two families became one family, sharing jobs, income, and even inheriting each other’s property to the exclusion of other blood relations. 272

The Security of Madina’s Muslim Community

The next urgent issue that got the Prophet’s immediate attention was the security of the Muslim community in Madina. The Muslims of Mecca had been persecuted in their own city for many years, and were forced to escape to a safe territory under the protection of new tribes. After Muhammad arrived in Madina, the Quraysh kept sending messages to city officials, asking them to kill or to expel the Prophet from their city. It was very clear that the new Muslim community of Madina was facing the threat of annihilation by the Quraysh.

In response to these threats, the Prophet invited the chiefs of all the tribes, Muslims and non-Muslims, and suggested that a city-state of a confederal type be constituted; one that guaranteed internal autonomy to each unit and at the same time would establish strong defensive measures for the protection of the city from external threats. The total number of Muslims in Madina at that time was a few hundred, while the total population was about ten thousand, half of them Jews. 273 In spite of this, all parties agreed to the proposal. In consultation with the representatives of all tribes, a written constitution of state was prepared. This document, which became known as the Madina Constitution, is the first known constitution in world history. This document makes it apparent that the Jews agreed to be part of the city-state of Madina. The constitution guaranteed the Jews equal status to the other inhabitants of the city, with full autonomy in all affairs: political and religious, as well as judicial. The Jews enjoyed an independent juridical life, having their own court and being governed by their own laws. The constitution established security for all citizens of the city-state based on solidarity against foreigners: an enemy of one group was to be the enemy of each and all. Very soon afterwards, the Prophet persuaded the non-Muslim tribes who lived around Madina to enter into a military alliance with the state of Madina. 274

The Madina Constitution

The Madina Constitution, which Prophet Muhammad issued in 622 CE, shortly after he arrived in Madina, was well preserved and passed down by several Muslim historians and biographers. This document was issued by Muhammad in the form of a letter addressed to all Muslims of the city, Emigrants and Helpers (Muhajirun and Ansar) alike:

In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate!

This is a document drawn up by Muhammad, the Prophet for the believers and Muslims from the Quraysh and Yathrib [Madina] and whoever joins them and takes part in their struggle for their cause: they are one nation, distinguished from all other people.

The document has been referred to as the Kitab: a chart of rights and duties. From a historical viewpoint, it declares the city of Madina a city-state and lays down the code for its administration.

This document contains fifty-two sections. The first twenty-three sections establish rules affecting the Meccan refugees (Muhajirun) and the Madinite helpers (Ansar); the rest of the sections discuss the rights and obligations of the Jewish tribes of Madina. In both parts, the Prophet himself is considered the final court of appeal. The document commands that the idolaters and the followers of the Jewish faith should follow the Muslims and help them in war. In other words, these people were given the right of citizenship on condition of cutting off all connections with the Quraysh. The document also states that the Arab tribes of Madina had become sick of fratricidal and internecine fighting, and they were prepared to follow a life of peace, accepting the Prophet as the judge whose decisions would be final and binding to all parties.

The central authority of the city-state had exclusive rights with respect to the question of war and peace. Military service was made compulsory. All Muslims were required to be helping one another. The right to seek justice was transferred from individuals to the community. All Muslims were to give full cooperation in the matter of the punishment of anyone who committed a crime.

A summary of the main sections of the Madina Constitution is listed below:

  • The believers and their dependents constitute a single community (Umma).
  • Each clan or subdivision of the community is responsible for blood money and ransom on behalf of its members (arts. 2–11).
  • The members of the community are to show complete solidarity against crime and not to support a criminal even when he is a near kinsman, where the crime is against another member of the community (arts. 13, 21).
  • The members of the community are to show complete solidarity against the unbelievers in peace and war (arts. 14, 17, 19, 44), and also solidarity in the granting of ‘neighborly protection’ (art. 15).
  • The Jews of various groups belong to the community, and are to retain their own religion; they and the Muslims are to render “help” (including military aid) to one another when it is needed (arts. 24–35, 37, 38, 46). 275

This constitution clearly defined the position of the Jews and their relationship with the Muslim state. Jews were considered citizens of the new Muslim state; they enjoyed religious freedom and state protection. They were required to support the state against any enemy, and never to conspire against it.

The constitution was influenced by the pre-Islamic principles that dealt with crimes and offenses. It was a sacred duty for each member of the tribe to give help to another member, and if necessary, to avenge his death based on the principle of “an eye for eye, a tooth for tooth, and a life for a life.” Over time, the demand of an actual life for a life was modified by the possibility of accepting blood money as an alternative. In Muhammad’s time the blood money for an adult male was a hundred camels; for a woman, fifty.

The provisions of the constitution related to vengeance and retribution are amplified by the Quran:

And those who, when wronged, defend themselves. The repayment of a bad action is one equivalent to it. But whoever pardons and makes reconciliation, his reward lies with Allah. He does not love the unjust.
As for those who retaliate after being wronged, there is no blame on them.

Blame lies on those who wrong people, and commit aggression in the land without right. These will have a painful punishment.
But whoever endures patiently and forgives—that is a sign of real resolve.

(Chapter 25, Surah 42:39–43, Consultation)

Although the Quran approved the law of retribution as a legitimate response to injury, Muhammad urged believers toward forgiveness. The Quran, through other verses, supported the Prophet’s position.

Likewise, the constitution sanctioned retribution as the principal deterrent for crime, but with the stipulation that the entire community could do nothing except oppose the criminal, a clear indication that Muhammad was laying the foundation of a society built on moral rather than utilitarian principles. The constitution also equalized the blood money of all members of the community, so that one life could no longer be considered more or less valuable than another. 276

Articles of Faith

The core beliefs and practices of Muhammad’s faith are encompassed in the five pillars of Islam. These are summarized as follows:

  1. Profession of Faith (shahada). The belief that “There is no god but God, and Muhammad is the Messenger of God” is central to Islam. This phrase, written in Arabic, is often prominently featured in architecture and a range of objects, including the Quran, Islam’s holy book of divine revelation. One becomes a Muslim by reciting this phrase with conviction.
  2. Prayer (salat). Muslims pray facing Mecca five times a day: at dawn, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset, and after dark. Prayer includes a recitation of the opening chapter (surah) of the Quran, and is sometimes performed on a small rug or mat used expressly for this purpose. Muslims can pray individually at any location or together in a mosque. Men gather in the mosque for the noonday prayer on Friday; women are welcome but not obliged to participate. After the prayer, a sermon focuses on a passage from the Quran, followed by prayers by the imam and a discussion of a particular religious topic.
  3. Alms (zakat). In accordance with Islamic law, Muslims donate a fixed portion of their income to community members in need. Many rulers and wealthy Muslims build mosques, drinking fountains, hospitals, schools, and other institutions both as a religious duty and to secure the blessings associated with charity.
  4. Fasting (sawm). During the daylight hours of Ramadan, the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, all healthy adult Muslims are required to abstain from food and drink. Through this temporary deprivation, they renew their awareness of and gratitude for everything God has provided in their lives— including the Quran, which was first revealed during this month. During Ramadan they share the hunger and thirst of the needy as a reminder of their religious duty to help those less fortunate.
  5. Pilgrimage (hajj). Every Muslim whose health and finances permit it must make at least one visit to the holy city of Mecca, in present-day Saudi Arabia. The Ka’bah, a cubical structure covered in black embroidered hangings, is at the center of the Haram Mosque in Mecca. Muslims believe that it is the house Abraham (Ibrahim in Arabic) built for God, and face in its direction (qibla) when they pray. Since the time of the Prophet Muhammad, believers from all over the world have gathered around the Ka’bah in Mecca on the eighth and twelfth days of the final month of the Islamic calendar.

Social and Economic Reforms

Justice, equality, and preservation of the dignity of all members of the community were among the main teachings of Islam. A whole set of economic and social measures were implemented by Muhammad to achieve justice and to take care of the needy. The Prophet outlawed usury, which was a major problem in the Meccan economic system; it was also a major concern in Madina. To enhance the new economic system of Muslim society, the Prophet established a new market, which—unlike the one controlled by the Banu Qaynuq—charged no tax on transactions and no interest on loans.

Prior to the emigration of Muslims from Mecca to Madina, the Quran called Muslims to give part of their assets and income to the needy (the third pillar of Islam, as listed above). Zakat means purification of wealth; Muslims give away a part of the growth of their wealth in order to purify it. In the first thirteen years of Islam, and before the emigration to Madina, each Muslim spent zakat according to his means and at his own will, whenever there was a worthy cause or a deserving case. In Madina, when the city-state was established, the revelation was more forceful and required compulsory charity. In this second stage, Muslims brought their alms to the Prophet to be distributed to the needy. As the Muslim community became well established, charity became obligatory in the form of taxes collected by the state, which were spent according to clear instructions. In this third stage, around the year 8 AH, zakat became a mandatory tithe which every member of the Umma had to pay according to his or her means. 277 In this stage it was raised to the rank of one of the five pillars of Islam. As the small city-state expanded to include larger areas of Arabia, tax collectors were posted all over the country, and detailed instructions were given as to the rate and tariffs of various taxes. 278

The zakat of the time of the Prophet Muhammad included not only tax on cash, but also land revenues and taxes on domesticated animals (sheep, goats, camels, and cows), beehives, and mines (gold, silver, and iron). Zakat comprised the entire income of the state, and was distributed according to revelation. The following verse of the Quran lists the eight beneficiaries:

Charities are for the poor, and the destitute, and those who administer them, and for reconciling hearts, and for freeing slaves, and those in debt, and in the path of Allah, and for the traveler in need—an obligation from Allah. Allah is All-Knowing, Most Wise.

(Chapter 10, Surah 9:60, Repentance)

It is noteworthy that in the above-mentioned Quranic list of the beneficiaries of zakat revenues, there is no mention of the head of state. On the contrary, the Prophet himself said that zakat revenues are forbidden to the Prophet and all members of his tribe, the Banu Hashim, and also the members of their cousin tribe, the Banu Muttalib.

It was very clear that Prophet Muhammad had established a welfare state that went much beyond what was known in the neighboring countries of Byzantium and Iran.

Righteousness does not consist of turning your face toward the East and the West. But righteous is he who believes in Allah, and the Last Day, in the Angels, and the Scripture, and the Prophets. Who gives money, though dear, to near relatives, and orphans, and the needy, and the homeless, and the beggars, and for freeing of slaves; those who performed prayers, and pay the obligatory charity, and fulfill their promise when they promise, and patiently persevere in the face of persecution, hardships, and in the time of conflict. These are the sincere; these are the pious.

(Chapter 2, Surah 2:177, the Cow)

Protection of Women

One of the most important social reforms was the protection of women. In pre-Islamic Arabia, women were treated as a man’s property. They could neither own property nor inherit it from their husbands (Khadijah was an exception). The widow herself and her dowry would be inherited by the husband’s heir along with any property left behind by the deceased. A female orphan had no right to inherit from her father upon his death.

Muhammad amended Arabia’s traditional marriage and inheritance laws, removing all obstacles that prohibited women from inheriting and maintaining their own wealth. Women in the Umma, for the first time, were given the right both to inherit the property of their husbands and to keep their dowries as their own personal property throughout their marriage. This legislation did not sit well with the male members of the community; they were arguing, “How can one give the right of inheritance to women and children, who do not work and do not earn their living?” Muhammad’s answer was clear: “This was God’s command.”

The Quran emphasized the equality of women and men in the eyes of God:

Muslim men and Muslim women, believing men and believing women, obedient men and obedient women, truthful men and truthful women, patient men and patient women, humble men and humble women, charitable men and charitable women, fasting men and fasting women, men who guard their chastity and women who guard, men who remember Allah frequently, and women who remember—Allah has prepared for them a pardon, and an immense reward.

(Chapter 21, Surah 33:35, the Joint Forces)

The next major reform related to women was the regulation of marriage. In pre-Islamic traditions, both men and women practiced polygamy. Paternity was an unimportant matter in Bedouin society; it made no difference how many husbands a woman had or who fathered her children. In sedentary societies like Mecca, where the accumulation of wealth brought the subject of inheritance to the surface, it became extremely important to determine the paternity of a child. So there was no place for polyandry ( the practice of having more than one husband) among women. In the new Muslim society, polyandrous unions were prohibited, and never again did a Muslim woman have more than one husband.

In pre-Islam Arabia, divorce was a simple matter, requiring only a statement from the man to his wife: “I divorce you.” In the new Muslim society, in order for divorce to happen, a three-month reconciliation period was required before the sentence of divorce could take effect.

The subject of polygamy was more complicated. Islam accepted the concept of polygamy as a necessity for the protection of widows and orphans resulting from wars. The Quran sets the rules for polygamy:

If you fear you cannot act fairly toward the orphans—then marry the women you like—two or three, or four. But if you fear you will not be fair, then one, or what you already have. That makes likely that you avoid bias. Who are lawful for you, up to two, three, or four, but only if you can treat them all equally.

(Chapter 4, Surah 4:3, Women)

You will not be able to treat women with equal fairness, no matter how much you may desire it. But do not be so biased as to leave another suspended. If you make amends, and act righteously—Allah is forgiving and merciful.

(Chapter 4 Surah 4: 129, Women)

It is clear that the two verses cited above, when combined together, should be interpreted as a rejection of polygamy.

The Prophet’s Wives

The Prophet lived a monogamous life with Khadijah for more than twenty-five years. After her death, in the course of ten years in Madina, he married nine different women. Most of these marriages were not sexual unions, but political ones.

The Prophet married his second wife shortly after the death of Khadijah. Sawda bint Zam’ah was the cousin and sister-in-law of Suhayl, the devout pagan chief of the clan of Amir. She had been married to one of the Muslims who had migrated to Abyssinia in 616 CE. When her husband died in exile, she returned to Mecca. Sawda was an older woman who had passed her first youth, but she could take care of Muhammad’s domestic needs. Muhammad may also have hoped to win over Suhayl. 279

Around the same time, Abu Bakr, who was eager to forge a closer link with the Prophet, proposed that he should marry his daughter Aisha, who was then six years old. The marriage was consummated when Aisha reached puberty. 280 She was the only virgin Muhammad married, and the most beloved creature to him.

In the third year of Al-Hijra, the Prophet married Hafsah bint Umar ibn al-Khattab. She was a widow; her ex-husband was Khunais ibn Hudhafah, who died in the period between the battles of Badr and Uhud. This marriage linked him to Umar.

The Prophet married Zainab bint Khuzaimah in the fourth year of Al-Hijra. She was from Bani Hilal ibn Amir ibn Sa’sa’ah, and was nicknamed Ummul-Masakeen (the poor), because of her kindness toward them. She was a widow; her husband, Abdullah ibn Jahsh, had been martyred at Uhud. She died two or three months after marrying the Prophet. 281

In the month of Shawl of the fourth year of Al-Hijra, the Prophet married Umm Salamah. She was a middle-aged widow; her husband, Abu Salamah, had been one of the first companions who emigrated (together with his wife)—first to Abyssinia, and then to Madina. He had been wounded at the battle of Uhud when he remained steadfast with the Prophet. Although his wound had healed and he became well enough to be the commander of another expedition against the tribe of Asad, he suffered a recurrence of his injury, which led to his death. The Prophet’s marriage to Umm Salamah forged an important relationship with one of Mecca’s most powerful clans, the Makhzum. 282

Zayd ibn Harithah was a slave who had been given to Muhammad by his wife Khadijah as a wedding gift. Zayd originally belonged to an Arabian tribe in northern Arabia. As a young boy, he had been captured by another tribe in a raid and then sold in Mecca. Muhammad freed him, but he continued to work for Muhammad. As mentioned earlier, Zayd’s father came to Mecca to free his son when he learned about his location. Zayd, who was by then a free man, elected to stay with Muhammad rather than returning to his original tribe, so Muhammad adopted him. Muhammad arranged for him to marry Zainab bint Jahsh ibn Riyab, whose mother was Umaymah bint Abd al-Muttalib, the Prophet’s own paternal aunt. The Prophet’s purpose behind marrying his own cousin to a former slave was to destroy all class distinctions for once and for all. Zainab and her brother consented to the marriage with reluctance, out of obedience to the Prophet.

Zayd’s marriage with Zainab was not a happy one; She had no love for him and could not rid herself of her class feelings. Zayd could not tolerate Zainab’s attitude, and complained to the Prophet, who counseled Zainab. But the situation in Zayd’s home continued to flare up every now and then. The Prophet was then instructed by God to allow Zayd to divorce his wife; he was also instructed to marry Zainab when the divorce was final. The Prophet was extremely perturbed by these instructions and kept them to himself for a long time, hoping that God might relieve him of this difficult duty. When Zayd came back to the Prophet complaining and expressing the desire to divorce Zainab, the Prophet said to him: “Hold on to your wife and have fear of God.” At this point, Quranic revelations were received by the Prophet criticizing his attitude and encouraging him to allow Zayd to divorce his wife. He was also commanded to marry Zainab when she was fully divorced.

When you said to him whom Allah had blessed, and you had favored, “Keep your wife to yourself, and fear Allah.” But you hid within yourself what Allah was to reveal. And you feared the people, but it was Allah you were supposed to fear. Then when Zayd ended his relationship with her, We gave her to you in marriage, that there may be no restriction for believers regarding the wives of their adopted sons, when their relationship has ended. The command of Allah was fulfilled.

(Chapter 22, Surah 33:37, the Joint Forces)

When Zayd divorced his wife and she had completed her waiting period, the Prophet asked Zayd to go over to Zainab and propose to her on his behalf. 283

After the defeat of Banu Qurayzah, the Prophet selected Rehanah bint Zaid ibn Amr ibn Khinafah ibn Sham’un ibn Zaid for himself and married her in the sixth year of Al-Hijra. She died shortly after the Farewell Pilgrimage.

The Muslims defeated the al-Mustalaq tribe, who were preparing an attack against Madina. According to the traditions of war in Arabia and neighboring countries, the prisoners of war became slaves. The Prophet did not accept the concept of slavery; however, he felt that changing this tradition unilaterally could create a problem as long as slavery was an international practice. So he devised a different way to achieve the goal of setting the prisoners of al-Mustalaq free. He took Barrah, the daughter of the chief of al-Mustalaq, to himself and set her free, and then proposed to marry her. When she accepted and became his wife, all the Muslims who had slaves from al-Mustalaq voluntarily set them free. They considered the whole tribe to be relatives of the Prophet, and did not want to have his relatives as their slaves. The Prophet gave his new wife the name of Juwayriyyah. 284

Umm Habibah Ramlah Bint Abu Sufyan was married to Ubaidullah bin Jahsh. She migrated with him to Abyssinia. When Ubaidullah converted to Christianity, Umm Habiba refused to convert and stood fast to her religion. When Ubaidullah died in Abyssinia, in the seventh year of Al-Hijra, the Prophet sent Amr ibn Umaiyah Ad-Damri with a letter to the Negus, the king of Abyssinia, asking him for Umm Habibah’s hand. Umm Habiba received a dowry of four hundred dinar (the gold currency), equivalent to four thousand dirham (the silver currency), which was the largest dowry of all the Prophet’s wives (their dowries were four hundred to five hundred dirham).

Safiyyah bint Huyayy ibn Akhtab was the daughter of Huyayy ibn Akhtab, who was the Jewish leader most hostile to Islam. Safiyyah was part of the spoils taken at the battle of Khaybar. The Prophet took Safiyyah for himself, set her free, and then married her.

In the seventh year of Al-Hijra, after the peace treaty of al-Hudaybiyah and the war against Khaybar, the Prophet sent envoys to the rulers of neighboring countries with messages calling them to convert to Islam. One of the envoys, Hatib ibn Abi Balta’ah, carried a message to the ruler of Egypt in Alexandria, Al-Muqawqis. The ruler of Egypt was courteous to the envoy and sent to the Prophet a positive reply that fell short of accepting Islam. He also sent gifts and a maid from noble Coptic family, Mariyah. The Prophet accepted the gifts and married Mariyah, who gave birth to his son Ibrahim, but the boy died while still a child in the tenth year of Al-Hijra.

Maimunah bint Al Harith was a woman of noble descent; her sister was married to the Prophet’s uncle, al-Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib. The Prophet married her in the seventh year of Al-Hijra. He tried to have a wedding banquet after the completion of the umrah ritual, at the end of the three days the Quraysh allowed the Muslims to stay in Mecca. The Quraysh leaders were concerned about the potential for the Muslims to interact positively with the Meccans at a wedding banquet, so they insisted that Muhammad and the Muslim pilgrims leave immediately. 285

Muhammad’s wives have been the subject of fierce attacks against the Prophet and the religion of Islam. Contemporary scholars—Muslims and non-Muslims alike—have defended these marriages. With very few exceptions, these marriages were not sexual unions, but political ones. The Prophet Muhammad, as the sheikh of the Umma, aimed at forging links within and beyond his community through these marriages. His unions with Aisha and Hafsah linked him to the two most influential leaders of the early Muslim community. His marriage to Umm Salamah forged an important relationship with one of the most powerful clans, the Makhzum. His marriages to Rehanah and Safiyyah linked him to the Jewish tribes. His marriage to Mariyah, a Christian Copt, created a significant political alliance with the Christian ruler of Egypt. His marriage to Juwayriyyah was a smart move on his part to free the tribe of al-Mustalaq from slavery. His marriages to Sawda, Zainab bint Khuzaimah, Umm Habiba, and Maimunah were to support widows who lost their husbands. Furthermore, his daughters married two other influential companions: Ali ibn Abi Talib and Uthman ibn Affan.

Changing the Qibla from Jerusalem to the Ka’bah

Prior to the Hijra to Madina, the Ka’bah was the holy house for Muslims, as it was also for the Meccan pagans. It was the house that Abraham had built. After the revelation, the Prophet and his companions prayed in the Ka’bah and practiced the rituals of the pilgrimage as well. When the Quraysh denied them access to Ka’bah, they performed the service of prayer in their houses or the house of al-Arqam. The Muslims, then, were instructed to pray in the direction of the Ka’bah. After the night journey to Jerusalem, the Prophet instructed the Muslims to pray in the direction of Jerusalem.

Once the Muslim community had been established in Madina, the Prophet experienced hostility from some of the Jews toward him and toward the Emigrants. They resented the economic reforms, which included prohibiting usury and abolishing taxes on merchandise. They were not respectful to Islam when they came to the mosque; some of them would laugh at the Quran. Muhammad became disturbed by such behavior and started to study and examine the Jewish religious practices. He did not accept their belief of having an exclusive religion; he was offended by the idea of a “chosen people.” He was also disturbed by the concept of the Trinity adopted by some Christians. These concerns prompted him to return to the religion of Abraham, who was neither a Jew nor a Christian. The Quran referred to this religion as Islam, meaning complete submission to God. Abraham did not belong to an exclusive cult; he had been a Muslim, “one who surrendered himself to God.” When Abraham and his son Ismael built the Ka’bah, they prayed to God, saying: “O our Sustainer! Make us surrender ourselves unto Thee, and show us our ways of worship.” (Chapter 1, Surah 2:127–129, the Cow)

In the Quran, Allah emphasizes clearly that submission is the basis of all the messages that came from him through all the prophets:

Religion with Allah is Islam. Those to whom the Scripture was given differed only after knowledge came to them, out of envy among themselves. Whoever rejects the signs of Allah, Allah is quick to take account.

(Chapter 3, Surah 2:19, the Family of Imran)

This was so in Noah’s time, as the Quran points out:

And relate to them the story of Noah, when he said to his people: O my people, if my presence among you and my reminding you of Allah’s signs is too much for you , then in Allah I have put my trust. So come to a decision, you and your partners, and do not let the matter perplex you; then carry out your decision on me, and do not hold back. But if you turn away, I have not asked you for any wage. My wage falls only on Allah, and I was commanded to be of those who submit.

(Chapter 11, Surah 10:71–72, Noah)

In Abraham’s time, the Quran remarks:

Abraham was neither a Jew nor a Christian, but he was a Monotheist, a Muslim. And he was not of the Polytheists.

(Chapter 3, Surah 3:67, the Family of Imran)

In the time of Lot:

We evacuated all the believers who were in it. But found in it only one household of Muslims.

(Chapter 27, Surah 51: 35–36, the Spreaders)

In January of 624, Muhammad received a revelation to pray in the direction of Mecca instead of Jerusalem:

We have seen your face turned toward the heaven. So We will turn you toward a direction that will satisfy you. So turn then your face toward the Sacred Mosque. And wherever you may be, turn your faces toward it. Those who were given the book know that it is the truth from their Lord; and Allah is aware of what they do.

(Chapter 2, Surah 2:144, the Cow)

This verse of the Quran was a reminder for the Prophet’s companions that they had their own religion, and they were not following other religions, but following God himself. It was a declaration of independence. Both Emigrants and Helpers were delighted by this declaration. The Ka’bah was deeply rooted in Arab tradition.286 Prior to these developments, the Prophet’s companions, the believers, were referred to as the Umma. After the revelation of the above verses, they became known as Muslims, the ones who surrender themselves to God.

Imposing an Economic Siege on Mecca

Muhammad’s mission began in Mecca, the capital of Arabia. He observed the serious ills of the Meccan society, which had become stratified, with the wealth concentrated in the hands of a few who were controlled by arrogance, selfishness, egotism, and lack of charity. Social reforms were overdue. When Muhammad received God’s call, he was hoping that his tribe would accept the message and change their behavior, as a first step toward changing Arabia and beyond. But the Quraysh rejected the message, persecuted him and his followers, and finally forced them out with death threats.

During the first year in Madina, Muhammad was occupied with the urgent problems that needed immediate attention. But his main mission in life stayed alive on his mind and in his heart. He was God’s messenger to the world, to all humans. He had to put God’s revealed will into practice and create a just, egalitarian society. His Muslim society in Madina was just the beginning; he should not be confined to an isolated oasis in Arabia.

Muhammad was aware of the challenges he was facing; however, he was determined to expand the new state to include all of Arabia. As Mecca was the capital of Arabia, in order to achieve his goals and to fulfill his dream he had to defeat the non-believers in Mecca, bringing the capital of Arabia under the wings of Islam. The Meccans were merchants who cared about their wealth more than anything else. Thus, Muhammad decided to fight them where it would hurt them the most: their economy. An essential part of his strategic plan was to intercept their caravans. So the Prophet decided to send bands of Emigrants on raiding expeditions against the Meccan caravans going to and from Syria. The aim was not to shed blood, but to capture camels, merchandise, and prisoners who could be held for ransom. Most of the Emigrants were merchants who had earned a living in Mecca through trade. In Madina, there was very little opportunity for trade, because its economy depended on agriculture. The Emigrants had no experience in farming; besides, no more farming land was available. So Muhammad envisioned the Emigrants eventually organizing their own caravans. He also envisioned Madina becoming the center of trade of Arabia as well as a sanctuary (haram), in addition being the most prosperous agricultural community. Muhammad realized that these expeditions could lead to real war. He knew that nonbelievers in Mecca would retaliate, but he thought that this might be what needed to happen. Bringing Mecca under the wings of Islam was not going to occur peacefully.

Muhammad believed that Arabia would not condemn his raids, because the Quraysh had persecuted him and his followers and forced them out of their homeland. Exile from the tribe violated the deepest sanction of Arabia. He strongly believed that these raiding expeditions were not only justified on the basis of the ghazu (rules), but were also permitted by God. The Muslims had suffered; their expulsion from Mecca was an act that had no justification.

The expedition raids, although they were few and sporadic, provided the funds required to cover the Emigrants’ financial needs. They also disrupted the trade flowing in and out of Mecca; the caravans had to make unnecessary detours, and the Meccans had to provide more people to guard and protect their merchandise. Some of non-Meccan caravans changed their routes and started to go through Madina to take advantage of the security provided by the Muslims. The raids demonstrated the readiness of the Muslims to attack the caravans and their willingness to go to war if needed. They were deliberate challenges and provocations, which must have increased the anxieties of the Meccans and at the same time sent a message to the nomads of the region that Muhammad meant business.287 After January 624 CE, Muhammad received a new revelation justifying such raids, even during the month of Ramadan: 288

Fighting is ordained for you, even though you dislike it. But it may be that you dislike something while it is good for you, and it may be that you like something while it is bad for you. Allah knows, and you do not know. They ask you about fighting during the Holy Month. Say, fighting during it is deplorable; but to bar others from Allah’s path, and to disbelieve in Him, and to prevent access to the Holy Mosque, and to expel its people from it, are more deplorable with Allah. And persecution is more serious than killing.

(Chapter 2, Surah 2:216–217, the Cow)

The Battle of Badr (15 March 624 CE)

The initial raid expeditions were carried out by only the Emigrants, but after January, 624 CE, the Helpers (Ansar) began to participate in the fighting. During the month of Ramadan (March 624), a large contingent of about 314 Muslims led by Muhammad himself was organized to intercept an important caravan coming back from Palestine. The leader sent a message to Mecca asking for help, and a force of one thousand men and marched toward Madina. The two armies camped at opposite sides of Badr Valley. The Quraysh, led by Abu Jahl (Amr ibn Hisham) assumed that their overwhelming numbers would cause Muhammad to retreat and return to Madina. However, Muhammad decided to go to war. If he had retreated from the battlefield and returned to Madina, he would lose the respect of all Arabia and never be able to recover from such a defeat.

While the Quraysh were feasting and drinking in their camp, certain that the Muslims would surrender, Muhammad was preparing his army for the battle. He lined up his troops in close formation and positioned his men by the wells, depriving Quraysh of access to water. He prayed, asking God for help. When the Quraysh advanced toward the Muslims, Muhammad refused to strike first, as God commanded. When Abu Jahl’s men attacked, however, the Muslims responded fiercely. They bombarded the enemy with arrows and finished the fight in hand-to-hand combat with their swords. By midday, the Quraysh had fled in disarray, leaving more than fifty of their leaders dead, including Abu Jahl himself. The Muslims then began rounding up the prisoners, a total of seventy. Muhammad immediately ordered his troops not to kill the prisoners, as was the tribal tradition in wars. A revelation came down to ensure that prisoners of war must either be released or ransomed. 289

When you encounter those who disbelieve, strike at their necks. Then, when you have routed them, bind them firmly. Then, either release them by grace, or for ransom, until war lays down its burdens.

(Chapter 26, Surah 47:4, Muhammad)

The Prophet issued an order that any prisoner who could read and write would be set free for no ransom if he taught ten Muslim children to read and write. For the rest, the ransom for the release of a prisoner equaled a thousand to four thousand dirhams, depending on the financial ability of the prisoner. The Prophet waived the ransom if the prisoner was poor. 290

After Badr, Muslims became the new political power in Hijaz, and Yathrib was no longer just an agricultural oasis, but the seat of power: al Madina, “The Prophet’s City.” Clan representatives from throughout the peninsula flooded into Madina to ally themselves with Muhammad. 291 The battle of Badr marked the end of the gazu (acquisition raids) and the beginning of war between the Muslims and the Quraysh. From this point on, there were armies to be assembled, arms to be acquired, and fortifications to be erected. Muhammad knew that it was only a matter of time until Mecca marched to Madina for revenge. He realized that Muslims now should prepare themselves for a long, costly war, which he termed jihad. This term, introduced for the first time by Muhammad after the battle of Badr, does not mean “holy war”; rather, it describes the constant struggle to put the will of God into practice. Muslims are required and urged to strive on all fronts: intellectual, social, economic, and spiritual, and to dedicate enormous effort and energy to transform the ideology of Islam—that is, justice and peace—into reality. Sometimes you have to go to war to achieve the goal of creating, defending, and protecting justice and peace.

As the Muslims were returning to Madina from Badr, Muhammad said:

We are returning from the lesser jihad and going to the greater jihad, the immeasurably more important and difficult struggle to reform our own society and our own hearts. 292

The Doctrine of Jihad

The doctrine of jihad in Islam developed slowly following the battle of Badr. Islamic warfare (jihad) was differentiated from pre-Islamic warfare by its ethical dimension. The Quran emphasized the distinction between combatants and noncombatants. The killing of women, children, monks, rabbis, the elderly, or any other noncombatant was absolutely forbidden. Torture of prisoners of war was prohibited, as well as mutilation of the dead, rape, molestation, and any kind of sexual offenses. The lives of diplomats were protected. Demolition of residential buildings and religious and medical institutions was prohibited.

In the doctrine of jihad, only defensive wars were allowed:

And fight in the cause of Allah those who fight you, but do not commit aggression; Allah does not love the aggressors.

(Chapter 2, Surah 2:190, the Cow)

Permission is given to those who are fought against, and Allah is able to give them victory.

Those who were unjustly evicted from their homes merely for saying, “Our Lord is Allah.” Were it not that Allah repels people by means of others: monasteries, churches, synagogues, and mosques—where the name of Allah is mentioned much—would have been demolished. Allah supports whoever supports Him. Allah is Strong and Mighty.”

(Chapter 17, Surah 22:39–40, the Pilgrimage)

When it came to war, the Quran commanded Muslims to fight with courage and steadfastness in order to bring the conflict to an end as quickly as possible. The Quran also emphasized the importance of mercy and forgiveness, even during armed conflict; the moment the enemy asked for peace, Muslims had to lay down their arms.

The term “holy war” was not used by Muhammad or the Muslims who conquered the Roman and Persian empires. That term was introduced to the Near East by the Crusades in the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries, and more recently in the twenty-first century by US president George W. Bush.

As the Crusades ended and Rome’s attention turned away from the Muslim threat and toward the Christian reform movement that affected all of Europe, the classic doctrine of jihad was challenged by a new generation of Muslim scholars. In the thirteenth century CE, Ibn Taymiyya introduced a completely different concept of jihad, calling for the killing of nonbelievers who refused to convert to Islam.

Ibn Taymiyya’s interpretation of jihad was accepted by other Muslim scholars in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The Wahhabi movement adopted this position, as did extremist scholars of the Muslim Brotherhood such as Sayyid Qutob. It also underlay al-Qaeda’s interpretation of jihad, as manifested by the writings of Abdullah Yusuf Azzam (1941–1989), a professor of Islamic philosophy at King Abdulaziz University. In the hands of the new radical militant groups (al-Qaeda and ISIS), jihad has become an offensive weapon that can be used against all perceived “enemies” of Islam, whether Muslims or non-Muslims. It is worth mentioning at this point that about 98 percent of the casualties of the terror campaign of the new jihadists have been Muslims. 293

This position is contrary to what Muhammad was advocating. It also violates one of the most important principles in Quran: that of “no compulsion in religion”:

There shall be no compulsion in religion; the right way has become distinct from the wrong way. Whoever renounces evil and believes in Allah has grasped the most trustworthy handle; which does not break. Allah is Hearing and Knowing.

(Chapter 3, Surah 2:256, the Cow)

Had your Lord willed, everyone on earth would have believed. Will you compel people to become believers?

(Chapter 11, Surah 10:99, Jonah)

O disbelievers
I do not worship what you worship. Nor do you worship what I worship. Nor do I serve what you serve.
Nor do You serve what I serve.
You have your way, and I have my way.

(Chapter 30, Surah 109: the Disbelievers)

The Conflict with the Jews in Madina

The constitution that Muhammad wrote shortly after he arrived in Madina stated that the members of the community were to show complete solidarity in peace and war. It required all inhabitants to participate in defending the oasis against any attack. The constitution also stated that the Jews were given equal rights, and guaranteed religious freedom.

About ten weeks after Badr, the Quraysh leader Abu Sufyan mobilized a force of two hundred horsemen and went toward the fields outside Madina. Under cover of night, he visited Sallam ibn Mishkan, the chief of the Jewish tribe an-Nadir, in his fortress. He obtained information about the Muslims in Madina and probably formed an alliance with the Jewish tribe. Before dawn of the following day, Abu Sufyan and his men attacked an area called Urayd, nearly five kilometers out of Madina, where they killed two men of the Ansar and burned down several houses. When Muhammad learned about this raid, he went out at the head of two hundred men in pursuit. The Meccan raiders were a long way ahead of the Muslim pursers and managed to escape. To move faster, the raiders dropped food and other supplies, improving their chances of escape. 294

Muhammad was alarmed by this incident because the Jewish tribes who lived in the south of Madina, the Nadir and the Qurayzah, had large armies, numbering more than 1,500 fighting men. If they sided with Mecca, it would pose a major threat to the Muslim state. Muhammad was also alarmed by the conduct of the other Jewish tribe, the Qaynuqa, who decided to break their alliance agreement with the Prophet. The Qaynuqa were the wealthiest tribe, as they controlled the oasis market. But the Muslims had established their own market where no taxes or interest applied to transaction, thus competing with the Qaynuqa and affecting their profits. Muhammad visited their district, urging them to keep their commitment to solidarity and peace. Their answer was as follows:

O, Muhammad, you seem to think that we are your people. Do not deceive yourself, because you have encountered a tribe with no knowledge of war and got the better of them; for by Allah, if we fight you, you will find that we are real men. 295

Shortly after this encounter, fighting broke out in the market after a Jewish goldsmith insulted a Muslim woman. Muhammad was called in as the arbiter, but the chiefs of Qaynuqa refused to accept his judgment and moved to their fortress. Their Arab allies refused to come to their aid. After a siege of two weeks, they were forced to surrender unconditionally. The traditional punishment in Arabia for their actions would have been for the men to be executed, and the women and children to be sold into slavery. When they pleaded for clemency, however, Muhammad allowed them to leave Madina immediately.

The Battle of Uhud

The victory that was achieved by the Muslims at Badr had a significant effect on the position of the Muslim community of Madina. Badr was the first major battle between the young city-state of Madina and the well-established city-state of Mecca, which was the capital of all Arabia. The decisive victory of the Muslims in this battle established them as a major force in Arabia, no less so than the Quraysh, and perhaps even more. Several Quraysh leaders had been killed in the battle. For the Quraysh, the defeat was devastating; no one in Arabia expected this outcome, especially given that the Quraysh’s army outnumbered the Muslims three to one. The Meccans were greatly humiliated; they needed a significant victory, as soon as possible, in order to regain their status in Arabia. In addition, the economic siege imposed on them by the Prophet and his companions was having a significant effect. It was not just a matter of wounded pride, but a matter of survival. They could not afford to lose their trade income as a result of the interruption of their trade routes.

The Quraysh’s trade routes to Syria were under constant threat from the Muslims in Madina, prompting them to use a different route for their caravans other than the coastal one; they took the route leading to Iraq, through Najd. Soon the Prophet learnt of the new route. He sent a force of a hundred men, led by Zayd ibn Harithah, and captured a caravan which was worth 100,000 dirhams. Thus the economic siege became even more devastating, making preparation for retaliation an urgent matter. A decision was unanimously taken by the leaders of the Quraysh to utilize the value of the caravan that they had saved before the battle of Badr to fund preparations for the war against the Muslims. 296

Over the next six months, the new chief of the Quraysh managed to build a large, well-equipped army composed of three thousand men with three thousand camels and two hundred horses. Several allied tribes contributed to this army in response to envoys who had been sent to different regions of Arabia. In addition, they were able to secure a sizable contingent of mercenaries from the tribe of Ahabish.

The Quraysh army left Mecca in total secrecy on March 11, 625 CE, camping north of Madina on a plain in front of Mount Uhud. Muhammad learned of the Quraysh’s plans from his informants in Mecca and consulted his companions. They wanted to confront the Quraysh forces outside Madina on an open battlefield. Although the Prophet himself wanted to carry out a defensive war in the streets and alleys of the city, he acceded to the majority. A force of about a thousand men, with Muhammad at the head, marched out after the mid-afternoon prayer.

What looked like an early victory by the Muslims turned into a rout when Muslim archers, having repelled the first attack, rushed down from their vantage point on the hill of Aynayn in order to take the spoils left by the retreating forces. This went against Muhammad’s direct orders, as he had told them to hold their positions. With the archers absent, the Muslim forces were open to attack, and they were overwhelmed by the Quraysh. The Madinan forces took heavy casualties, and the Prophet narrowly escaped.

The defeat at Uhud could have been worse had the Quraysh continued their assault and chased the Muslim army all the way to Madina. As it was, twenty-two Meccans and sixty-five Muslims had been killed, including Muhammad’s uncle Hamzah. This showed the Muslims not to disobey the instructions of the Prophet.

Muhammad was concerned about the possibility of a second attack from the Quraysh if they learned that he had survived. Therefore, the following day, and his forces established a defense line at Hamra al-Asad, fourteen kilometers from Madina, and stayed there for three days. On the Prophet’s instruction, they collected as much wood as they could and used it to light numerous fires at night to give the impression that their army was far larger than it actually was. Reports reached Meccan leader Abu Sufyan that the Muslims had mobilized all their forces and were ready to defend the city. At the Quraysh camp, which was not far from the Muslims, this news made him rethink the idea of attacking again, and he withdrew his forces. 297

After the defeat at Uhud, Muhammad had to deal with many threats: the threat of the Quraysh, opposition from the Jewish tribes, the waverers (Hypocrites) in Madina, and infighting between the Helpers and the Emigrants. He also had to contend with the Bedouin tribes who had forged alliances with the Quraysh. One of those tribes, an Arab Jewish tribe called the Banu Nadir, plotted to assassinate Muhammad. When the assassination failed, the Nadir were forced to leave Madina in August 625 CE. Each was allowed a camel load of belongings, but they were forbidden to take arms with them.

The Battle of the Trench (Moat) and Its Consequences

The Muslim state that Muhammad had established in Madina in 622 CE proved to be a new society built on completely opposite principles from those of the stratified Meccan society. The principles of justice and equality for all created the most progressive social and political system in Arabia. During the five years following his emigration from Mecca, Muhammad had been able to build a strong and prosperous state. This success prompted Muhammad’s opponents in Arabia to form an alliance aimed at annihilating Muslims and putting an end to their society and its ideology.

The Banu Nadir, who had been residing at Khayber since being exiled from Madina in August 625 CE, took upon themselves the mission of forming a coalition against Madina. A delegation from Nadir contacted the Quraysh, the Ghatafan, and other tribes who traditionally opposed Muslims, promising them Nadir’s entire date harvest for a whole year if they achieved their victory against Muhammad. The Jewish delegation secured support from other tribes, and the alliance was able to raise a strong army of ten thousand men which marched toward Madina under the command of Abu Sufyan in the month of Shawal (February 627 CE).

As soon as Muhammad received information about this new threat, he consulted his companions and formulated a defense plan. The geography of Madina allowed the Prophet to fortify his city and wait for the attackers to assault Madina rather than engaging them in an open fight. Only the northern side of the city was vulnerable to attack. The other sides were naturally fortified. To the east and west, volcanic rock, stretched over considerable distance, forming natural barriers. To the south, thick groves of palm trees stretched over a large area, forming another natural barrier; behind these fields lay the fortified homes of the Jewish tribe of Qurayzah, with whom Muhammad had a peace treaty. To secure the city completely, the Muslims needed only to dig a trench on the north side of Madina, wide enough to form an obstacle that would prevent cavalry from crossing.

The Prophet divided his three thousand companions into groups of ten and assigned each one a section of forty yards to dig. By the time the allied forces arrived at Madina the moat was fully completed. It took the Muslims a little more than two weeks to complete the job. Women and children were sent to the towers and fortresses in the south of the city.

When the allied forces witnessed what the Muslims had done, they were shocked. They had never experienced any defensive structure of this kind, and did not know how to build a bridgehead over a moat. They therefore camped near the moat in two locations: in the valley by Wadi al-Aqiq, and beside Mount Uhud. The horsemen tried to find a weak point where they could cross to the other side, but in vain. For their part, the Muslims were fully aware of what the failure of their defenses would mean, so they encamped very close to the moat and showered any attackers with their arrows. They guarded their defensive lines on all sides, day and night.

Ali and the Giant

On March 15, 627 CE, a small group of cavalry led by Ikrama managed to jump the ditch at the narrowest point. There were seven men in the group, including Ikrama and

an enormous man who was the first to land. This enormous man was Amr ibn Abd Wud, known as the Giant, who challenged the Muslims, shouting: “ Is there anyone among you who has the courage to meet me in single combat?” The Giant, who was famous for his strength and skill, had never yet lost a duel or spared an opponent.

The events that followed were most remarkable. Because of the great importance and the valuable effect on the Battle of the Moat, the details of this encounter are stated below as described by General Akram in his book The Sword of Islam, based on the writing of Ibn Hisham and Ibn Sad.

The challenge was received by the Muslims in silence. The Giant then laughed and shouted again: “Is there anyone among you who has the courage of a man? And what of your Islam? And your Prophet?” At this blasphemous taunt, Ali approached the Prophet and sought permission to engage the challenger. The Prophet replied: “Sit down. This is Amr!” The Giant then repeated his insults. Again Ali went up to the Prophet. Again the Prophet declined permission. More laughter and more taunts came from the Giant: “Where is your Paradise, of which you say that those who lose in battle will enter it? Can you not send a man to fight me?” When for the third time Ali moved toward the Prophet, Muhammad saw in Ali’s eyes a look which he knew well; he realized that Ali could no longer be restrained. The Prophet then took his turban and wound it around Ali’s head. He next took off his sword and girded it to Ali’s waist. And he prayed: O, Lord! Help him! 298 This sword became the most famous sword in Islam, killing more men in fair combat than any sword in history. This was the blade Zulfiqar.

Ali strode toward the unbelievers, accompanied by small group of Muslims. As Ali came within dueling distance of the challenger, he stopped. The Giant knew Ali well. He had been a friend of Ali’s father, Abu Talib. The Giant smiled indulgently at Ali as a man might smile at a boy.

Ali said: “O, Amr! It is believed that if any man of the Quraysh offers you two proposals, you always accept at least one of them.”

“True.”

“Then I have two proposals to offer you. The first is: accept Allah and his Messenger and Islam.”

“I have no need of Them.”

“Then dismount from your horse and fight me.”

“Why, O son of my brother? I have no desire to kill you!” “But I have great desire to kill you!” replied Ali.

With a cry of rage, the Giant dismounted and rushed at Ali. Amr struck at Ali many times, but Ali remained unharmed. He would parry the blow with his sword or shield or step aside to let the Giant’s sword whistle past him harmlessly. At last, the Giant stood back, panting and baffled. He wondered how this could be. Never before had any man survived so long in personal combat against him. And now this boy was looking at him as if he was playing a game!

Then things happened so fast that no one could quite follow the sequence—neither the Muslims nor the Quraysh nor the Giant himself. Ali dropped his sword and shield to the ground; his body shot through the air like a missile and his hands grasped the Giant’s throat. With a wrestler’s kick he knocked the Giant off balance, and the Giant came crashing to the ground—all in a matter of seconds. Now the Giant lay down on his back with Ali sitting astride his chest. The bewilderment on the Giant’s face changed to fury. His face went purple, the veins stood out on his neck and his huge biceps and forearms trembled as he strained to break Ali’s grip. But he could not move it an inch. There was the quality of steel in the muscles of Ali.

“Know, O, Amr,” said Ali gently. “That victory and defeat depend on the will of God. Accept Islam! Thus not only will your life be spared, but you will also enjoy the blessing of God in this life and the next.” Ali drew a sharp dagger from his waistband and held it close to Amr’s throat. The Giant did not accept the offer, as he could not accept to live the rest of his life under the shadow of defeat and disgrace. He gathered the spittle in his mouth and spat into the face of Ali, then arched his back and raised his chin to offer his throat to Ali. But Ali did not plunge the dagger into the Giant’s throat; he rose calmly from the Giant’s chest, wiped his face, and stood a few steps away, gazing solemnly at him. “Know, O, Amr, I only kill for the way of Allah and not for any private motive. Since you spat in my face, my killing you now could be from a desire for personal vengeance. So I spare your life. Rise and return to your people!”

The Giant rose. But there was no question of his returning to his people a loser. He would live a victor, or not at all. Intending to make one last attempt at victory, he picked up his sword and rushed at Ali, who had just enough time to pick up his sword and shield and prepare for the fresh assault. The Giant, in furious desperation, delivered a savage blow that shattered Ali’s shield, but in doing so lost its force, and could

then do no more than make a shallow cut on Ali’s temple. Before the Giant could raise his sword again, Zulfiqar flashed in the sunlight, and its tip slashed open the Giant’s throat. The blood of the Giant gushed forth like a fountain. For a moment the Giant stood motionless. Then his body began to sway as if he were drunk. He then fell on his face with a crash and lay still.

The Muslim fighters now rushed at the six remaining Quraysh, killed one of them, and forced the rest to withdraw across the ditch.

Treachery and Defeat

For defenders of a besieged city, it is vital for their survival to secure adequate supply lines. Madina’s defenders were in a favorable situation, as their farms were located within the defense lines of the city. On the other hand, the alliance forces were in a difficult position; their supply lines were virtually nonexistent. They had to rely on what they had brought with them. The Quraysh and their allies realized that unless the Muslim defense lines could be breached, the defenders would be able to survive for a long time. The most vulnerable area of their defenses was the south side, where the Jewish Qurayzah tribe resided in fortified homes. Muhammad was counting on the Qurayzah’s adherence to the peace treaty that they had signed with him as an essential part in his defense plan of the Muslim state. The Nadir leaders realized that the alliance could not maintain the siege for very long, and therefore their plan to destroy the Muslim state and annihilate all Muslims was doomed. In a desperate attempt to save their plan, Huyayy ibn Akhtab managed to visit Ka’b ibn Asad, the leader of Qurayzah, at his fort south of Madina. With tremendous effort, he managed to persuade Ka’b to abrogate the treaty with Muhammad and to join the alliance forces in a decisive attack from the south. 299

As soon as the Prophet learned about the treachery of the Qurayzah, he sent the chiefs of the Aws and Khazraj tribes to the Qurayzah to confirm what he had learned. The delegation tried to persuade Ka’b to maintain their peaceful relations and to confirm their alliance with the Prophet. S’ad ibn Mu’adh, the chief of the Aws, said to them: “Qurayzah, you know our past relations. I fear for you a destiny similar to that which befell al-Nadir, or even worse.” They rejected these overtures, however, with vulgar and obscene words.

When the Prophet received the news confirming the treachery, he was fully aware of what it meant: the Muslims were, in effect, besieged by two enemies who were determined to exterminate them. Yet his response to his companions was, “Rejoice, for the end will be a happy one.” This statement reflected his total trust in God and his belief that, despite the great forces he was facing, the Muslims would be victorious if they were truly on God’s side. To give them more comfort and assurance he said:

By Him who holds my soul in His hand, God will provide you with a way out of this hardship. I indeed hope to go around the Ka’bah feeling absolutely safe, and that God will enable me to hold the keys of the Ka’bah in my hand. God will surely destroy the Persian and Byzantine Empires, and their treasures will be spent to further the cause of God. 300

Huyayy ibn Akhtab went back to Quraysh with the news that the Qurayzah were joining them against the Muslims, but they needed ten days to prepare. They also requested that the allies should intensify their attacks against the defenders’ positions to prevent the Muslims from settling with the Qurayzah first. The Quraysh and the other allies were pleased with what Huyayy ibn Akhtab had accomplished, and they became certain of achieving victory. They intensified their attacks against the Muslim positions, especially the one where the Prophet himself stood. The fighting continued all day and extended through the night, and in the end, the attackers were repelled.

Nuaym ibn Mas’ud, a Ghatafan, came to Muhammad professing his faith in Islam and offered to help. He was able to plant seeds of doubt in the Quaryazah and Quraysh, causing them to lose trust in one another. As the two parties argued, the rest of the allied forces, who had joined the attack in hopes of plunder, lost resolve. Unprepared and now unwilling to continue the long siege, they finally gave up after a violent rainstorm devastated their camps.

In the morning, when the Muslims found out that their enemies had left and the siege had ended, their faith in the Prophet’s message grew stronger. Many believed that the arrival of Nuaym ibn Mas’ud to the Muslim camp and the success of his actions were God’s way of helping Muhammad and his companions to achieve victory. The split in the ranks of the enemies could not have occurred by chance; rather, it was the work of God, who decided to help the Muslims of unshakable faith.

The Judgment against the Banu Qurayzah

The treachery of the Jews was the most critical event of this war. After the departure of the allied forces, the Muslims forces then imposed a siege on the Jewish fortified positions that lasted twenty-five days. When the Qurayzah surrendered, the Prophet ordered their men to be detained and handcuffed. The Aws leaders begged him to have mercy on their former allies. The Prophet answered: “Would you accept if I refer the matter between me and your former allies to one of you”? They were pleased by Muhammad’s response to their plea, and chose the chief of the Aws, S’ad ibn Mu’adh, to pass judgment on the Qurayzah.

When Muhammad told S’ad of his task, he said: “It is God and His messenger who are entitled to pass judgment.” The Prophet told him that it was God’s command that he should give his verdict. S’ad then asked the Aws; “Do you give me your most solemn oath by God that my verdict is acceptable and final?” Their answer was affirmative. Then he turned his head to the other side where Muhammad and other Muslims were sitting, and asked the same question. The Prophet answered, “Yes.”

S’ad then asked the Qurayzah whether they would accept his verdict, whatever it was, and they agreed. When S’ad received the answers from all parties, he announced the verdict: “I hereby rule that the fighters from the Qurayzah are to be killed, their properties to be divided, and their women and children be taken prisoner.” The Prophet endorsed the ruling. The judgment was then implemented. According to Umar al-Waqid, the total number of the fighters executed was twenty-five.

The execution of the Banu Qurayzah has been the subject of intense debate among scholars and historians. Western historians, especially the Zionists among them such as Heinrich Graetz and S. W. Baron, have linked the Banu Qurayzah to the rebels of Masada in 72 CE. They also gave exaggerated reports of the number of Jews who were executed, claiming that between four hundred and seven hundred were killed. Contemporary Muslim scholars such as Baraka Ahmad and W. N. Arafat present a completely different account of to the number killed and the circumstances. The Jews of Qurayzah were not freedom fighters or rebels; they were simply traitors. Karen Armstrong states that the execution was neither illegal nor immoral according to the tribal ethics of the time. Michael Lecker has demonstrated that the people of Qurayzah were not executed for being Jews, but for their treachery. Lecker demonstrated that a significant number of the Banu Kilab, who were Arab clients of the Qurayzah, were also executed for treason at the same time. Furthermore, thousands of Jews continued to live in Madina after the Battle of the Trench. 301

Muhammad’s Strategy and Plans following the Battle of the Trench

The failure of the joint expedition against the Muslim state marked a turning point in the history of Islam. This new stage was described clearly by Muhammad when he said: “Now we will no longer be on the defensive; they will not attack us again.”

The position of Muhammad in Arabia was greatly enhanced following the victory over the Quraysh and their allies at the Battle of the Trench. During the months that followed, the Muslims carried out multiple raids against the tribes who had allied themselves with the Quraysh. These raids gave the Muslims complete control of the area surrounding Madina and tightened the economic blockade against Mecca.

As Madina’s position improved, Mecca’s position was on the decline. The continuing success of the Muslims made many of the Arabs question the validity of their traditional faith. Islam was able to make inroads into many tribes, and won new followers all over Arabia, including members of several clans of the Quraysh. There were many Muslims in Mecca who adopted Islam but did not publicize their status, as they did not wish to sever their ties with their families, but hoped that over time the entire community would accept Islam. Others were unable to emigrate to Madina; a number of converts who tried to leave Mecca were intercepted and forced to return to Mecca and stay with their families as prisoners. 302

Many tribes who lived around Mecca or in the north along the trade routes to Syria signed a treaty of alliance with Muhammad. The Prophet did not demand that these tribes should accept Islam as their religion, and did not force them to pay alms (zakat). The nomadic tribe of Ashja, who lived within easy range of Madina, signed a treaty of alliance with Muhammad. In 627 CE, the prince of Dumat-al-Jandal signed a treaty of alliance with Muhammad and gave his daughter in marriage to one of Muhammad’s companions, though he himself remained a Christian. 303

Although the Muslims had gained several allies after the Battle of the Trench, the Prophet concluded that further spread of his message could not be achieved through more raids and wars. Ever since he had begun sharing his message, compulsion had never been the method of conversion. The Prophet was always trying to convey the principles of Islam to unbelievers, to help them understand what his message was all about. The Quraysh had represented the greatest obstacle to achieving this goal, as their opposition to Islam had prompted most of the Arabian tribes to ignore Muhammad’s call. Ending the state of war between the Muslims and the Quraysh might remove that obstacle and allow the Prophet to spread his message freely. He concluded that the Muslims needed to demonstrate to all of Arabia that war was not their mission in life; rather, they wanted to achieve peace and justice. War was a necessary means to that end. The Prophet became interested in a peaceful relationship with the Quraysh, even if that meant lifting the economic blockade. 304

The Peace Offensive of Al-Hudaybiyah

Around the sixth year of Al-Hijra, Muhammad announced to his companions that he had a strange dream where he saw himself standing in the Ka’bah with the shaven head of a pilgrim, wearing the traditional hajj costume, holding the key to the Ka’bah. This announcement was followed by a call to all Muslims in Arabia to join him in his visit to Mecca, as he intended to make the hajj. He also made it clear that this visit was not a military expedition, and he had no intention of violating the rule of pilgrimage forbidding all fighting. His announcement startled his companions, as they could not imagine themselves going to Mecca unarmed. Muhammad was firm with regard to the purpose of his visit to Mecca: It was nothing more than making the pilgrimage.

About 1,400 Muslims from Madina accompanied Muhammad on his peaceful march to Mecca in the month of Thul-qa’dah (February–March, 628 CE). He mounted his camel, al-Qaswa, and brought along seventy camels that he intended to slaughter at the end of the hajj rituals to distribute their meat to the poor in the sanctuary. When he arrived at a place called Dhul-Hulayfah, about nine kilometers from Madina, he stopped to pray, then marked the camels, following Arabian tradition, to make it known that they were to be slaughtered after the completion of the divine rituals. Muhammad and his companions then went into a state of purification (ihram), donning white garments. As they resumed their march, Muhammad, in a loud voice, uttered the pilgrims’ cry: “Here I am, O, God, at Your service.” It was very clear to everybody who saw the Muslims in their ihram costumes that they were on a peaceful mission.

The Quraysh were extremely agitated when they learned about the peaceful march of the Prophet and his companions. They immediately prepared themselves to stop this march by any means, including force. The Prophet continued his march until they reached a place called Ghadir al-Ashtar, where one of the scouts he sent to spy on the Quraysh came back and told him that the Quraysh had sent a force of two hundred men to intercept the march. In response to this information, he asked whether anyone knew of an alternative route that would allow them to avoid confrontation. A man from the tribe of Aslam led them through rough terrain to the plain of al-Hudaybiyah, south of Mecca, about a day’s walk from the sanctuary.

As soon as the Prophet entered the sacred zone, he asked the companions to set up their camp, then declared:

By Him Who holds my soul in His hand, I shall respond favorably to any proposal the Quraysh puts to me today which helps establish good relations and guarantees respect to God’s sanctuaries.

When Muhammad established his camp at al-Hudaybiyah, he was in effect, in a state called “sit-in,” waiting for permission from the Quraysh to enter the city, refraining from violence, in accordance with the Arab tradition. The Muslims’ pilgrimage to Mecca was a demonstration that Islam was not a foreign religion, but essentially an Arabian one, with Mecca at its center. It also sent a clear message to the Meccans that Muhammad was prepared to establish a peaceful relationship with the Quraysh. 305 Arab tribes who were on their way to Mecca for the pilgrimage understood this message. He sent a message to the Quraysh, assuring them that he had no intention of fighting anyone, informing them that he wanted to visit the Ka’bah to show that Muslims recognized its sanctity, and offering them a truce with them if they so desired. The Quraysh rejected his offer. 306 Muhammed was determined to resolve the impasse peacefully, so after much back-and-forth with emissaries, he sent Uthman ibn Affan to Mecca to deliver his message. Uthman argued with the Quraysh that they should be faithful to their duty as custodians of the Ka’bah, which obligated them to make it possible for all pilgrims to visit the sacred house. The Quraysh rejected his argument, but offered Uthman permission to do the tawaf himself. Uthman made it clear that he would not do so until the Prophet had done his own tawaf. He stayed in Mecca for few days longer than he had planned in hopes that he would be able to persuade the Quraysh. He also took the opportunity to contact some of his old friends who had adopted Islam in secret. There were quite few of them who were happy to meet with him. Uthman passed on the Prophet’s message that victory would be coming soon.

A rumor began to spread in the Muslim camp that Uthman had been killed; it became more plausible with each passing day that Uthman did not return. Muhammad became very sad and was deeply hurt by this development, as it meant that the Quraysh had terminated all possible attempts for peaceful settlement, leaving no other option but war. He declared to the Muslims in the camp: “Uthman was on a mission given to him by God. I, therefore, make a pledge on his behalf to fight the Quraysh.” Then he called on his companions to give him a pledge to fight the Quraysh to the bitter end. Each companion, then, pledged to fight and never flee from battle, even if that meant his own death. This pledge became known as “Bay’at al-Ridwan.”

Allah was pleased with the believers when they pledged allegiance to you under the tree. He knew what was in their hearts, and sent down serenity upon them, and rewarded them with an imminent conquest. And abundant gains for them to capture. Allah is mighty and wise.

(Chapter 26, Surah 48:18–19, the Triumph)

The companions realized that they were far inferior to the Quraysh in number; furthermore, they had started their journey carrying only what was absolutely necessary for traveling in the desert Arabia: their swords in their sheaths; none of them wore body armor. Shortly after the pledge was made, Uthman arrived back at the camp. Muhammad was very pleased to see him alive, but was not happy to learn that the Quraysh still rejecting peace.

When the Quraysh learned about the pledge, their chiefs realized how determined the Muslims were to achieve their goal. They also considered the consequences of fighting near the sanctuary, especially during the sacred month. A delegation headed by Suhayl ibn Amr was therefore sent to the Muslim camp for negotiation with the Prophet.

Suhayl represented the new leadership of Mecca that had evolved after the failure of the Battle of the Trench. The Prophet received the Quraysh’s delegation well, as their coming to the Muslims’ camp for negotiations was itself a victory for him. He was extremely eager to conclude a peace agreement with the Quraysh, as he believed that he could achieve more with peace than through war. The Quraysh, however, were determined to prevent Muhammad from visiting the Ka’bah. Still, though they had rejected the advice of all mediators and refused the offer presented by Uthman, Muhammad’s emissary, they were now at his camp ready to negotiate a peace treaty with him. For Muhammad, the terms of the agreement were not the issue; the goal was to bring peace between the two sides, as it was through peace that the Muslims would be able to spread God’s message to all of Arabia.

The Prophet accepted all the conditions and demands that Suhayl presented for the sake of peace. This gave the Quraysh no excuse not to conclude the peace treaty. The Prophet’s companions were shocked and distressed over the conditions that the Prophet accepted. They questioned the wisdom of accepting such terms, and argued among themselves against it, but the Prophet insisted.

The Prophet then called in Ali ibn Abi Talib to write down the peace agreement so that it might be signed by both sides. First, he asked Ali to write: “In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate.” Suhayl interrupted: I do not know this. Write down: “In your name, Our Lord.” The Prophet told Ali to write the phrase Suhayl proposed, then continued with his dictation: “These are the terms of the peace agreement between Muhammad, God’s messenger, and Suhayl ibn Amr.” Again, Suhayl interrupted: “Had I accepted that you are God’s messenger, I would not have fought you. You have to write down your name and your father’s name.” The Prophet accepted Suhayl’s point and revised the dictation, telling Ali to write the following terms of the agreement between Muhammad and the Quraysh:

  • Both have agreed to a complete truce for a period of ten years, during which all people will enjoy peace and security and will not attack one another.
  • Moreover, if anyone from the Quraysh joins Muhammad without permission from his guardian or chief, he shall be returned to the Quraysh.
  • If anyone from those in the camp of Muhammad joins the Quraysh, they are not required to return him.
  • Both sides agree that they harbor good intentions toward each other.
  • No theft or treachery shall be condoned.
  • Whoever wishes to enter into an alliance with Muhammad may do so, and whoever wants to enter into an alliance with the Quraysh may do so.
  • It is further agreed that Muhammad shall return home this year without entering Mecca. At the end of one year, the Quraysh shall evacuate Mecca for Muhammad so that Muslims may enter it to stay for three days only. Muslims shall carry only the armaments necessary for travelers—namely, swords in their sheaths, and no other arms.

Although the Prophet acquiesced to the terms of the agreement, it was extremely difficult for Muhammad’s companions to accept it without unease and bitterness. Now they had to go back home without being able to make the hajj. They were still in the sacred state of ihram, the state of consecration, as they had been since leaving Dhul-Hulayfah. Traditionally, this state ends when the pilgrim has offered his sacrifice and shaved his head after completing the tawaf. The fact that they were prevented from visiting the sacred house put them in effect in the position of muhsar, a state of being unable to make the hajj owing to reasons beyond their control. In such a situation, God allows for release from ihram by slaughtering animals (sacrifice), and shaving one’s head. The Prophet went out from his tent, slaughtered an animal, and called someone to shave his head. As soon as he had done that, the rest of his companions did the same. Umar then asked the Prophet: “Have you not told us that we would go to the Ka’bah and do our tawaf there?” the Prophet replied: “Have I told you that you will go there this year?”

The peace agreement between Mecca and the Islamic state of Madina opened new avenues for the message of Islam. For all practical purposes, it put an end to the economic blockade that had been imposed on Mecca. Muhammad was not interested in harming the Meccans; rather, he wanted to bring them into the fold of Islam and have them become an important component of the Islamic state. 307 Furthermore, since receiving his revelation in 610 CE, Muhammad had faced strong opposition from the Quraysh. Most of the Arabian tribes sided with the Quraysh and adopted a hostile position toward the Prophet. Now, having concluded an agreement that ended the Quraysh’s hostility, the Prophet had a greater chance of enhancing the position of the Islamic state through alliances with many tribes, which would allow him to spread the message of Islam throughout Arabia. 308 And, in fact, several tribes accepted his call and adopted Islam. However, his mission was not limited to Arabia; he believed that he was the messenger of God to all mankind. Therefore, after the peace agreement, he sent messengers to the kings and rulers of all the states surrounding Arabia, informing them of his message and calling on them to adopt Islam.

The War against Khaybar

In August 628 CE, a few weeks after the return to Madina, the Prophet called on Muslims to get ready for an expedition. This time the target was Khaybar, where the Nadir tribe had taken refuge. It was from Khaybar that the Jewish leaders had started their conspiracies against Islam. The new leader of Khaybar’s Jews followed the same policies and tactics as the previous leadership. He had renewed his tribe’s alliance with the Ghatafan, an Arab tribe whose quarters were not far from Khaybar. When the Prophet learned about the Nadir building new alliances, he formulated a plan consisting of two components. The first was to persuade the Jewish tribes to adopt a policy of peaceful coexistence with the Muslims based on equal respect of the interest of both sides; the second, to prepare for military confrontation if the first one failed.

The Prophet realized that to achieve total victory, he had to crush their power completely. He formulated a strategic plan to confront the enemy at each of their forts simultaneously by assigning a small detachment to attack a specific fort while the larger part of the army followed, capturing one fort at a time. After several weeks of sieges and attacks, most of the forts were captured; the remainder were forced to surrender in return for their safety. The surrender agreement stipulated that none of their fighters would be put to death; they would be allowed to leave Khaybar and its vicinity, taking with them their women and children. They would abandon all their claims to their land, money, horses, and arms. Shortly after the agreement was signed, while they were getting ready for departure, the Prophet received a request from their leaders to allow the Jews of Khaybar to stay and work in the orchards in return for giving the Muslim owners half the yield of all the land. The Prophet accepted the offer and amended the agreement. 309 To seal the agreement, the Prophet took Safiyyah, the beautiful daughter of the chief of Nadir, as his wife. 310 The other Jewish population centers—Fadak, Wadi al-Qura, and Tayma—signed similar agreements with Muhammad.

When the Prophet returned to Madina from Khaybar, he celebrated the return of his cousin Ja’far ibn Abi Talib from Abyssinia, whom he had not seen for fourteen years. He also celebrated the arrival of his new wife Umm Habibah, the daughter of Abu Sufyan, who was among the returnees. Earlier that year, her husband Ubaydallah ibn Jahsh had died in Abyssinia, so the Prophet proposed to her. The wedding ceremony was performed by proxy before the Negus (the king of Abyssinia). 311

The Second Trip to Mecca: The Umrah (Lesser Pilgrimage)

During the year that followed al-Hudaybiyah, the Muslims enjoyed many successes. Several tribes responded positively to Muhammad’s message, and more Arabs adopted Islam as their religion. The Muslim expedition against Khaybar was a great success. The Muslims in Madina enjoyed calm and security. They feared no enemy to the north after the surrender of the Jews; nor did they fear any enemy to the south after signing the peace agreement with the Quraysh.

In March 629 CE (the month of Dhul-Qa’adah, the seventh year AH), it was time to prepare for the promised pilgrimage to Mecca. The Prophet called his companions to join him in his journey to Mecca, and 2,600 Muslims answered his call. The pilgrims went into the state of consecration (ihram) at the doorstep of the mosque in Madina. The terms of the peace agreement stipulated that the Muslims were allowed to carry only their swords in their sheaths, which they did. However, for protection and to guard the pilgrims against any possible threat, the Prophet sent ahead of the group a hundred horses carrying more armaments, including shields, spears, and protective headgear, led by Muhammad ibn Maslamah. The pilgrims followed, with the Prophet on al-Qaswa, his camel, surrounded by companions who were watching all directions. Abdullah ibn Rawahah, a companion of the Prophet from the Ansar, held the reins of the Prophet’s camel.

When Muhammad ibn Maslamah arrived at a place called Marr al-Zahran, which was only about one day’s travel from Mecca, with the horses, a few men from the Quraysh questioned him about his mission and why he had so many horses. Those men informed the leaders of the Quraysh. This information prompted them to send a delegation to the Prophet asking him about the purpose of bringing horses and arms. He assured them that he was not going to carry the arms to the city. The head of the delegation then replied: “This is more like what we have known of your faithfulness.”

When the Prophet was very close to the Haram, he told Abdullah ibn Rawahah to chant the following phrases:

There is no deity but God alone. He has fulfilled His promise, given victory to his servant, and dignity to his soldiers, and He alone defeated the confederates.

Abdullah ibn Rawahah repeated these phrases, and all the Muslims repeated them after him, providing an atmosphere of great strength and enthusiasm.

It had been agreed at al-Hudaybiyah that this year the Muslims could only make the lesser pilgrimage, the umrah, which did not include a visit to Mount Arafat and the Valley of Mina. The Quraysh elders watched the arrival of Muhammad from top of a nearby mountain. The sound of the Muslims loudly chanting the above-mentioned phrases echoed through the valleys and empty streets of the city. The Meccans were impressed by the discipline of the Muslims. The huge crowd of pilgrims entered into the city slowly and solemnly, led by Muhammad on al-Qaswa. The Quraysh people were eager to see the Prophet and his companions coming into Mecca, especially as they had heard a rumor that they had been weakened physically by an epidemic. The Prophet was aware of this rumor, so when he reached the Ka’bah he dismounted, kissed the Black Stone, and then proceeded to make the circumambulation (tawaf ) jogging. His companions did the same for the first three rounds. When he completed the seven rounds of tawaf and sa’i, he stopped and began slaughtering the sixty camels he had brought as a sacrifice. His companions did the same. Afterward, the Prophet and his companions shaved their heads and released themselves from the state of consecration (ihram). 312

The Prophet had left two hundred of his companions at a place close to Mecca called Ya’jaj, to guard the horses and the arms. When he and those companions who joined him in his umrah had completed their rituals, he sent a group of them to Ya’jaj to replace those who stayed behind. He himself remained in the Ka’bah until it was time for midday prayer (Zuhr). He ordered Bilal to go to the top of the Ka’bah and call for the prayer (Adhan): 313

God is most supreme. I bear witness that there is no deity but God. I declare that Muhammad is God’s messenger. Come to prayer. Come to a certain success. God is most supreme.

Bilal climbed onto the roof of the Ka’bah three times a day. “His loud huge voice reverberated through the valley, urging Muslims to come to salat with the cry ‘Allah Akbar,’ reminding people that Allah was ‘greater’ than all the idols in the Haram, who could do nothing to prevent this ritual humiliation. It was an immense triumph for Muhammad, and many of the younger Quraysh became even more convinced that the old religion was doomed.” 314

The Prophet and his companions stayed three days in Mecca, walking through the streets of the city without fear. The Meccans were able to see how close-knit the Muslim community was. Their dedication to the cause of Islam was clearly visible in the way they talked to one another, and in their deference to the Prophet. The Meccans admired the great degree of unity among the Muslim community despite the fact that Muhammad’s followers belonged to many tribes. The Muslim community that the Prophet Muhammad established was based on justice, equity, and good conscience, prompting many people to join. This community, known as the Umma at the time of emigration to Madina, later on was referred to as the Muslim community of Madina. The Quran speaks of it thus:

You are the best community that ever emerged for humanity: you advocate what is moral, and forbid what is immoral, and believe in Allah. (Chapter 3–4, Surah 3:110, the Family of Imran)

The chiefs of the Quraysh became worried that their own people would begin to have second thoughts about Islam after they witnessed what Muhammad had achieved. Therefore, when the three days were over, two emissaries went down to Mecca to tell Muhammad, who was sitting with S’ad ibn Ubaddah and other helpers: ”Your time is up and you have to leave.” S’ad was angry at their lack of courtesy, but the Prophet silenced him, saying: “O, S’ad, no ill words to those who have come to visit us in our camp!” To the astonishment of the Quraysh, Muhammad and his companions left Mecca that night in an orderly fashion. Their peaceful withdrawal from the city showed their confidence that they expected a speedy return. 315

The news of the Muslims’ pilgrimage spread rapidly throughout the entire peninsula. More and more Bedouins came to Madina to meet Muhammad and to declare their adoption of the religion of Islam. Many tribes became Muhammad’s confederates. A steady stream of the younger generation of the Quraysh who had converted to Islam arrived in Madina. Prominent young Quraysh warriors, including Amr ibn al-As and Khalid ibn al-Walid, converted to Islam and made the Hijra to Madina. Khalid’s brother was in the Prophet’s company when he came to Mecca, and tried to see Khalid after he had completed the duties of the umrah (lesser pilgrimage), but Khalid had left Mecca before the arrival of the Muslims. Khalid’s brother then sent him a letter, saying: “I am amazed at the fact that you continue to turn away from Islam when you are as intelligent as I know you to be. God’s messenger asked me about you and said, ‘A man of his caliber cannot remain ignorant of Islam.’ It is high time, brother, for you to make amends for the great benefits you have missed.” When Khalid read the letter, he felt as if a veil had fallen from his eyes, and he decided to emigrate to Medina. On his journey to Medina, he met two other men from the Quraysh who had made the same decision: Amr ibn al-As and Uthman ibn Talhah.

Upon his arrival to Medina, Khalid went to meet the Prophet and declared his faith, and then said: “Messenger of God, I am thinking of those battles at which I was fighting against the side of the truth. I request you to pray God for me to forgive me.” The Prophet said: “When you embrace Islam, all your past sins are forgiven.” Khalid went on to become a key figure in the Prophet’s efforts to spread Islam.

The Expedition to Syria (the Battle of Mu’tah)

As the Muslim state in Madina became more secure, Muhammad felt that he could devote time and effort to expand his call to other communities. He picked a number of his companions who combined charming personality with intelligence and ability to handle difficult situations and sent them as envoys to the rulers of neighboring countries. His envoys were received with varying degrees of hospitality. The rulers of Byzantium, Abyssinia, Egypt, and Yemen replied cordially, while the Persian emperor sent back a rude reply.

In September of 629, about three months after the umrah (lesser pilgrimage), the Prophet sent an envoy to Shurahbil ibn Amr, the Ghassanid ruler of Bostra in southern Syria, to convey to him the message of Islam. Shurahbil beheaded Muhammad’s emissary. When the news of this hostile act reached the Prophet, he mobilized an army of three thousand men toward Syria under the command of his adopted son, Zayd ibn Harithah. Muhammad gave instructions that if Zayd should be killed, Ja’far ibn Abi Talib, who was the Prophet’s cousin, should take his place. Abdullah ibn Rawahah was named as third commander should Ja’far be killed. If all three were incapacitated, the men were to choose their commander.

When news of the Muslim march reached Shurahbil, he was able to mobilize all the Arab tribes under his control, raising a larger force of tens of thousands of soldiers. In spite of this, the Muslims decided to press on, advancing northward until they reached a point not far from the southern end of the Dead Sea.

As the two armies faced each other, Zayd realized that the Muslim army was vastly outnumbered on a scale that they had never experienced before. Furthermore, the slope of the land was against his army, so he decided to withdraw southward to Mu’tah, where they would have the ground advantage. There the two forces clashed. The Byzantines managed to kill all three Muslim commanders, assuming that this would bring them victory. Undaunted, however, the Muslim soldiers chose Khalid ibn al-Walid as their commander, and he was able to maneuver a successful withdrawal with minimal losses. From that day he was named “the Sword of Allah,” a title bestowed upon him by the Prophet. 316

The loss was a heavy one for Muhammad, and it weakened him politically. It soon was eclipsed however, by a far more consequential event: the Quraysh broke the Treaty of al-Hudaybiya, bringing the longstanding ideological conflict between Mecca and Medina to a head.

The Conquest of Mecca

The heart of the al-Hudaybiyah agreement, established after the Battle of the Trench, was the establishment of a peaceful relationship between the Muslims and the Quraysh. The agreement stipulated that Arabian tribes were free to make alliances with either side. The end of hostilities applied to those allies in the same way as they applied to the main parties of the agreement.

Now, the Bakr tribe had signed an alliance with the Quraysh, while the Khuza’ah had entered an alliance with the Muslims. In Sha’ban, 8 AH (November 629 CE), the Bakr clan of Dayl attacked a group of men of the Muslim-aligned Khuza’ah who were gathering at a water spring called al-Watir near Mecca. The Khuza’ah were forced to retreat, taking refuge at the consecrated area of the Ka’bah, where fighting was prohibited; all Arabs recognized the sanctity of that area. The Bakr, however, violated this precept and killed a large number of the Khuza’ah. Moreover, the Quraysh aided Bakr in this attack by providing them with arms and men. Hence the peace agreement was violated not only by the Bakr tribe but also by the Quraysh.

When the fight was over, the Khuza’ah sent a delegation to Madina. They presented to the Prophet the full details of the attack and the role of the Quraysh in the violation of the treaty. There was no doubt in Muhammad’s mind, then, that the Quraysh had committed a blatant violation of the peace agreement. The Quraysh, realizing that this put them in a grave situation, sent Abu Sufyan to Madina in an attempt to rectify matters and renew the peace agreement with the Prophet. But the Prophet saw his opportunity to finally resolve the conflict between Medina and Mecca. He turned Abu Sufyan away, and began preparing for war against the Quraysh.

Marching on Mecca

The Prophet already had formulated his plans for the expedition against Mecca. The most important elements of the plan were to take the Quraysh by surprise and give them no time to prepare their defenses or build alliances. He asked Abu Bakr to keep the decision to attack Mecca a secret. He told his closest companions to start preparing immediately, but quietly. He put Umar ibn al-Khattab in charge of security. Umar appointed patrols on all routes leading out of Madina or into it, and gave them instructions not to allow anyone suspicious to pass through.

The surprise factor was not the only element in Muhammad’s military strategies. The Prophet was always concerned about bloodshed. Muhammad believed that his objective could be reached in a bloodless manner by striking at the right moment when the enemy would not dare offer any resistance. Victory could be obtained by overwhelming the enemy rather than annihilating it. His plan was to preserve the resources and energies of the Quraysh, and to redirect those resources after victory in a constructive way toward enhancing the power of the Islamic state. 317

The Prophet sent messages to the Muslims in other regions of Arabia to get ready for a major expedition, but kept the target a secret. Most Muslims assumed that they would be marching to Syria in compensation for the setback in Mu’tah. The preparations for war could not be concealed, but the most important job was to keep the destination unknown and to divert attention away from the intended target.

On the tenth day of Ramadan in the eighth year of the Islamic calendar (January 630 CE), The Prophet marched at the head of a large army. As they made their way in the direction of Mecca, Muslims from various tribes joined the army in great numbers. All the Muhajirun and Ansar participated in this expedition; none of them was left behind. Raising such an army in those days was unprecedented; indeed, it was overwhelming. When the army reached a place called Asfan, not far from Madina, the Prophet asked for a jug of water. Raising it high to be seen by his army, he drank during the day and indicated that the soldiers were to follow his example; that is, they were allowed not to fast while traveling. He himself did not fast during the twelve-day march until he reached Mecca.

The Muslims continued marching until they reached Marr al-Zahran, not far from Mecca, where they camped. Remarkably, the Quraysh had not received any intelligence about the march until then. The Quraysh were terribly concerned about the Prophet’s plans, and they were sending people to gather information, but failed to receive any news about the Muslims’ activities. To increase the impact of his presence, the Prophet ordered every single soldier to light a fire. His strategy was to win the psychological war in hopes of averting a full-scale war. The fires created a magnificent scene that attracted the attention of Abu Sufyan, who went out that night to gather intelligence. Al-Abbas, the Prophet’s uncle, had mounted a mule and headed toward the city; arriving at a place called the Valley of Arak, he heard people talking, and recognized the voice of Abu Sufyan. He called to him, identified himself, and walked toward him. When Abu Sufyan learned about the massive force that Muhammad had assembled, he agreed to go to the Muslim camp to meet the Prophet.

The next morning, when Abu Sufyan returned to Mecca, he found the Meccans very restless, confused, and not knowing what to do. They were gathered in groups all over the city. Having no time to waste, Abu Sufyan shouted: “People of Quraysh, Muhammad is approaching at the head of an army for which you are no match. He who goes into Abu Sufyan’s house is safe. He who enters the mosque is safe, and he who stays in his home with his door locked will be safe.” The Meccans then dispersed and did what Abu Sufyan had asked them what to do.

The Muslims laid siege to Mecca from all sides. Mecca is situated in a valley, surrounded on all sides by high mountains. There was only one highway, which passed through the city from north to south. Two roads joined the main highway: the Hajun Road and the Kada Road. As his army reached the outskirts of Mecca, the Prophet separated it into four divisions, each entering Mecca from one side so that the whole city would be in their hands at the same time. Muhammad, the supreme commander, was kept informed of the activities of the different detachments. When the Prophet came to know that one of his commanders had made remarks about taking revenge on the Quraysh, that commander was replaced; the Prophet declared: “The honor of Mecca shall increase today, and its sanctity will in no way be violated, as it is there that the Qiblah of Islam is situated.” 318

One of the divisions of the army commanded by Khalid ibn al-Walid was attacked by a group of Quraysh people led by Ikrimah ibn Abu Jahl. Khalid responded to their attack and his detachment killed twenty Meccans, while the Muslims lost two soldiers. When the Prophet learned about this fight, he was angry, and said: “Have I not given clear orders to all units not to fight?” He was then told that Khalid had been attacked by the Meccans and was forced to fight back. The Prophet said: “Whatever God brings is good.”

The Prophet was overwhelmed by the great victory God granted him. Only eight years had passed since he had been forced to flee from Mecca, and now he was returning to his city and facing no resistance. He bowed his head very low as he entered. His entry to Mecca was unparalleled in history. No conqueror would enter the capital of his enemy with excessive modesty and gratitude, as the Prophet did. Muhammad entered Mecca prostrating himself repeatedly on the back of his camel, reciting the surah entitled “al-Fath” (Victory) continuously. The Prophet was thankful for God’s graciousness; he felt that it was all achieved by the will of God.

When the authority of the Muslim army was established in Mecca, a tent was set up for Muhammad in al-Hujun. Then he went straight to the Ka’bah, riding his camel. When he arrived there, he touched the Black Stone with a short stick he was carrying and raised his voice: “God is the most supreme.” The Muslims echoed his cry. Then he started his tawaf on his camel, and upon the completion of the seven rounds, he dismounted and prayed at Maqam Ibrahim. The Prophet then called in Uthman ibn Talhah, who kept the keys of the Ka’bah, and asked him to open the door. There were 360 idols on and around the Ka’bah; they all were removed.

The Prophet prayed inside the Ka’bah, and then addressed the Quraysh:

There is no deity other than God, who has fulfilled His promise, supported His servant, and defeated the confederate tribes on His own. No practice of pride or privilege nor any revenge or claim to any property is valid except that of the care of Ka’bah and the provision of drinking water to pilgrims. People of Quraysh, God has taken away from you the passionate pride of ignorance which made you attach great value and honor to your ancestors and value them highly. All people are the descendants of Adam, and Adam was created from clay.

He then recited:

O people, We created you all from a male and female, and made you races and tribes, that you may know one another. The best among you in the sight of Allah is the most righteous. Allah is all-knowing, well-experienced.

(Chapter 26, Surah 49:13, the Private Room)

Then he asked the Quraysh, “What sort of judgment do you think I am going to pass against you?”

They replied: “You are a benevolent one. You are an honorable brother and the son of an honorable brother of ours.”

He said: “You may go free. You are all pardoned.”

Ali ibn Abi Talib, the Prophet’s cousin, came to him with the keys to the Ka’bah in his hand and requested, “Messenger of God, give us the privilege of looking after the Ka’bah in addition to our present one of providing drinking water for pilgrims.”

The Prophet refused, and called Uthman ibn Talhah. He handed him the keys back and said, “This is a day of honesty, when promises are honored.”

The Meccans who had been unceasingly hostile to Muhammad and his followers for twenty years did not expect to receive such treatment from the Prophet. To be pardoned was beyond their wildest dreams. He spared their lives, guaranteed their safety, and protected their properties. Such treatment achieved an instant change of attitude in every Meccan. They were amazed by the changes Islam made in their fellow Arabs’ behavior. They admired the Muslims’ discipline and dedication, and the bonds Islam had created within the Muslim community. The Meccans now had the chance to learn more about Islam, which prompted many of them to come to Muhammad to declare their adoption of the faith; the majority wanted to become Muslims. The Prophet, therefore, sat at the hill of al-Safa and received their pledges of embracing Islam. No one was forced to come. The Prophet not only captured Mecca, he also captured the hearts of all Meccans.

Only a few people were under penalty of death for serious crimes committed against Muslims. One of them was Ikrimah ibn Abu Jahl, who had attacked Khalid’s forces. When the Muslim army had entered Mecca, Ikrimah had fled to Yemen. His wife, Umm Hakim bunt al-Harith, became a Muslim. She went to the Prophet and asked him to pardon Ikrimah and grant him safety. He granted her request. She then went to Yemen and brought Ikrimah back to the Prophet, and he adopted Islam.

The Prophet stayed nearly twenty days in Mecca, making all the decisions and arrangements needed for the Muslim community of Mecca. He took all measures to remove the idols from the homes of the new Muslims. He also sent several expeditions to the surrounding area to remove all idols. Khalid ibn al-Walid went to Nakhlah to destroy al-Uzza, Amr ibn al-As went to Hudhayl to destroy its idol Suwa, and S’ad ibn Zayd was sent to destroy Manat.

The Battle of Hunayn (Shawal, 8 AH/January 630 CE)

Muhammad’s conquest of Mecca was shocking to many tribes in Arabia, especially when the news spread that the Quraysh had embraced Islam. Two powerful tribes of Hijaz—the Hawazin, who lived in a mountainous area close to Ta’if, and the tribe of Thaqif, whose home was the fertile oasis of Ta’if—decided to go to war against the Prophet and his new Meccan followers. Other tribes of Hijaz joined this coalition, including the Nasr, the Jusham, S’ad ibn Bakr, and groups of the Hilal. The allied forces of these tribes agreed to give the overall command to Malik ibn Awf of the Hawazin tribe. Malik was a young man of immense courage who was well respected by all the clans; he managed to gather about twenty thousand soldiers. He asked each fighting man to bring to the battlefield his family and all their wealth, including camels, cattle, and silver, believing that his men would have no choice but to fight hard to protect their women, children, and property.

As soon as Muhammad heard about the enemy marching toward Mecca, he organized a large force consisting of the ten thousand Muslims who had marched on Mecca and two thousand Meccans. Muhammad left Mecca on January 27, 630 CE, and camped close to the enemy at a place called Hunayn on the evening of January 30. The next morning, the Muslims started their march to meet the enemy forces. As they approached the entrance of the valley, they encountered a heavy shower of arrows aimed at them from all directions, which disrupted their march and caused chaos in their lines. It took Muhammad and a hundred men from the Muhajirun and the Ansar to rally behind the Prophet and to counteract the enemy’s assault, forcing the Hawazin to retreat and to flee. The Muslims chased them and confronted them again at a valley called Awtas. Many of the Hawazin were killed; the rest fled and took refuge at the fortified city of Ta’if. The events of this encounter are mentioned in the Quran:

Allah has given you victory in numerous regions; but on the day of Hunayn, your great number impressed you, but availed you nothing; and the land, as spacious as it was, narrowed for you; and you turned your backs in retreat.

Then Allah sent down his serenity upon his Messenger, and upon the believers; and He sent down troops you did not see; and He punished those who disbelieved. Such is the recompense of the disbelievers.

(Chapter 10, Surah 9:25–26, Repentance)

Ta’if, the home of the Thaqif tribe, was a fortified city, and its inhabitants were well prepared. A siege was imposed on the city; however, after twenty days, the Prophet realized that a prolonged siege would be of little use. It was also clear to him that the Thaqif were not in a position to plan an offensive war against the Muslim state. Therefore Muhammad decided to leave them alone for the time being, especially since the consecrated months were about to begin.

The Muslims had gained great wealth from the Hawazin. All their women and children became captives. The spoils consisted of twenty-four thousand camels, forty thousand sheep, and four thousand ounces of silver. When the battle ended, all the prisoners and the spoils were gathered at al-Ji’ranah valley, a short distance from Mecca. When the Prophet arrived at al-Ji’ranah, he received a delegation from the Hawazin headed by Malik ibn Awf himself, declaring their acceptance of Islam and appealing for mercy. The Prophet responded to their request and freed the women and children. He acted mercifully, demonstrating forgiveness from a point of strength in his response to their appeal. The remainder of the spoils were divided among the Muslim fighters, with the Quraysh leaders receiving a significant portion. A fighter on foot received four camels or forty sheep. A horseman received three times as much, as was customary. None of the Ansar, be he a chief or an ordinary member of his clan, was given any special gift. Several Ansar leaders expressed their concerns and dissatisfaction with this. The chief of the Ansar, S’ad ibn Ubadah, went to the Prophet and said to him: “Messenger of God, you have distributed the spoils of war among your own people and the other Arabian tribes, but no such gifts were made to any person among the Ansar; the clans of the Ansar have taken your action to heart.” The Prophet appeared to be surprised that the Ansar felt this way, so he asked S’ad to assemble these clans in a nearby place and to let him know when they had assembled; the Prophet then addressed them, saying: “People of the Ansar, are you aggravated at a trifle of this world which I have given out to certain people in order to win their hearts over to Islam and left you to rely on your faith? Are you not satisfied, people of the Ansar, that other people should go to their quarters with sheep and camels while you go back to your own quarters with God’s messenger?” As they heard the Prophet’s words, tears sprang to their eyes. They were so touched that their beards were wet with tears. They said: “We are satisfied with God’s messenger as our share.”319 The Prophet then finished sharing out the spoils among the different tribes who had participated in the war.

One of Muhammad’s greatest achievements after the conquest of Mecca was the genuine reconciliation with the leaders of Mecca, the men who few months before had been his implacable enemies. It is not surprising to find that Abu Sufyan helped with the destruction of the idol of al-Lat at Ta’if, and was later present at the Battle of Yarmouk in 636. It is more surprising to learn that, after Muhammad’s death when there was disaffection in some of the tribes, Suhayl ibn Amr is credited with being chiefly responsible for keeping the Meccans loyal. Most interesting of all is the case of Ikrimah, son of Abu Jahl. At first proscribed by Muhammad, then pardoned, he became a keen Muslim and was given several important military and administrative posts. Ikrimah died as martyr in one of the battles in Syria. 320

Arabia after Hunayn

From al-Ji’ranah, the Prophet Muhammad went to make the lesser pilgrimage (umrah) at Mecca, then started his journey back to Madina after being away for three months, between the month of Ramadan and the month of Dhul-Hijjah. The period of time that followed the Prophet’s return to Madina was a peaceful one, during which only few small expeditions were sent to certain tribes to convey the massage of Islam, or to destroy certain famous idols. However, it was a time that saw radical changes in Arabia beyond recognition.

The most important change that happened after the conquest of Mecca and the victory of Hunayn was the change in the attitude of Arabia toward Islam. Upon the return of the Prophet to Madina, in the early part of the year 9 AH, he received delegations from various parts of Arabia. All had different missions; some of them merely wanted to gather information about Islam and the nature of the society it had established; others came to pledge their loyalty without committing themselves to being Muslims; but a significant number came to declare that they had accepted the faith of Islam and to tell the Prophet that he could rely on their support. The Prophet received all those delegations warmly, and dealt with them tactfully. He learned from his close companions, especially Abu Bakr, the internal politics of the various groups and the relations between the subdivisions of any group. There was no question of coercing or pressuring any group of people, or any individual, to accept Islam. It was sufficient, from the Islamic point of view, for any tribe or community to declare its willingness to live in peace with Islam, not impeding its progress or conspiring against it, to maintain the friendliest of relations with the Muslim community. Delegations who accepted Islam were assured that they were part of the Muslim community, enjoying all the rights of Muslims. With each such delegation, the Prophet sent one or more of his companions to teach them the essentials of their new faith and to help them lead an Islamic life.

Those delegations continued to arrive, one after another, throughout the tenth year of the Prophet’s settlement in Madina. The net result of that year was indeed that the whole of Arabia was now more or less loyal to Islam. 321

Tribal Relationships with Islam

The biographies of the Prophet present us with long lists of the tribes that sent deputations to Madina. It is not clear from these biographies what obligations these tribes had toward the Muslim state of Madina. Muslim historians have assumed that the arrival of the deputation to Madina signified the tribe’s adoption of Islam and the acceptance of the obligation to perform the prayer (salat), and to pay the tax (zakat). However, this was not the case; the relationship between the Arab tribes with Madina was not the same in different regions of Arabia. W. Montgomery Watt summarizes the status of the Islamic state in 632 as a conglomeration of tribes in alliance with Muhammad on varying terms. The tribes in Hijaz were all firmly united with Muhammad, and all professed Islam. In Najd, northeast of Madina, parts of the tribes of the region embraced Islam, allied themselves with the Prophet, and paid taxes. The majority of the Banu Hanifah, east of Madina, opposed Islam. In Yemen and the rest of the southwest, many groups professed Islam, but they generally constituted only a section of each tribe, and in all were probably less than half the population. The position in the southeast and along the Gulf was similar. On the Syrian border beyond the Gulf of Akaba, there had been little success in detaching tribes from the Byzantine emperor.

Although the Prophet Muhammad, then, had not made himself the ruler of entire Arabia, he had to a great extent unified the Arabs. Through the religious and political system he had created, Arabs became aware of themselves as an ethnological and cultural unit. Islam provided an economic, social, and political system that attracted men of the nomadic tribes in various ways. Religion was an integral part of this system, since it gave the ideas on which the whole was based. All Muslims were equal, and Muhammad treated his followers with the courtesy and respect shown by a nomadic chief to his fellow tribesmen. The Arabs of that day certainly thought of the system as a whole, and were incapable of distinguishing its economic, political, and religious aspects independently. They could not have the economic and political benefits of membership without the religious profession of belief in God and His messenger. 322

The Byzantine Threat and the Invasion of Tabuk (Rajab, 9 AH/October 630 CE)

Greater Syria was an important part of the Byzantine Empire. Southern Syria, including the areas known today as Palestine and Jordan, was governed by Arab rulers from the tribe of Ghassan who exercised limited authority as agents of the Byzantine emperor. After defeating the Seleucids in the first century BC, the Roman emperor Augustus sent a failed expedition to South Arabia aiming at controlling the trade coming from India to the Middle East through South Arabia. This failure prompted the Romans to establish a maritime route linking the Mediterranean world with Arabia and India. They also utilized the services of their allies, the Abyssinians, for the protection of their interests in the region.

Before Islam, in the late sixth century and the beginning of the seventh century CE, Byzantium viewed Arabia as a vast desert which could present no danger to the empire. They assigned to their agents the duty of protecting their southern borders from potential raids, the Ghassanids. The radical changes in Arabia as a result of the establishment of the Muslim state in Madina alarmed Byzantium. The battle of Mu’tah was a clear indication of what this state represented. Although that battle technically ended in a military defeat, the Byzantines witnessed how a small Muslim force was able to confront a much larger Byzantine army, and how they were able to withdraw in an orderly fashion after they inflicted heavy losses on their enemy. Byzantium also watched the events in Arabia over the following eighteen months as Muhammad was able to defeat his opponents and expand the Muslim state to include almost all of Arabia.

The Prophet received information from Syria that the Byzantines were raising a large force to attack the Muslim state. He also learned that the Ghassan, the Byzantines’ agents in Syria, were in contact with some of the Hypocrites in Madina in an effort to bolster opposition to the Prophet. More intelligence reached Muhammad, indicating that forces from the Arab tribes of Lakhm, Judham, Amilah, and Ghassan were mobilized and gathered at the plains of Balqa, in Palestine, in preparation for a march toward Madina. 323

The Arab tribes along the road to Syria were less open to converting to Islam than the tribes in other parts of Arabia that had accepted Islam and allied themselves with Muhammad. The northern tribes were largely Christians, and they had also a long history of association with the Byzantines. The prestige of the Byzantine Empire stood high after the decisive victory over the Persians and the restoration of the Holy Rood (a relic of the True Cross) to Jerusalem in March of 630. The Prophet realized that to win over the tribes in the north, along the road to Syria, he had to demonstrate greater power by launching an attack against Byzantium in Palestine. The mounting of a huge expedition would be a counter-blast to what Heraclius had done in 630. So the Prophet announced his decision in the month of Rajab, and called the nation to start preparations for the march to face the enemy in Palestine, a journey of up to a thousand kilometers on camelback. The call to arms was spread all over Arabia, so that all new Muslims could join up.

This was the first time that the Prophet had announced the destination of an expedition. In the past he had always planned his expeditions in a way that allowed him to take his enemy by surprise. The difficult nature of this expedition required him to inform his followers how serious and challenging this mission would be so they could prepare themselves for the urgency of the critical situation. The Prophet called upon the Umma (community) to respond to the call of jihad to defend the cause of Islam against the aggression of Byzantium. He encouraged the rich to be generous in providing resources for the war. The Muslims responded well and donated thousands of camels, horses, and silver. The women donated their jewelry to help equip the fighters with arms and transport. The Prophet was very pleased by the generosity of his companions, saying, “The one who has equipped the ‘hardship army’ has been forgiven his past sins.” (The “hardship army” was the title given by the Muslims and historians to that expedition.)

As soon as the Muslims heard the Messenger’s call, they rushed to comply with his orders. Tribes and clans from all regions of Arabia began pouring into Madina. Almost all Muslims responded positively. The needy and poor who could not afford a ride came to Muhammad asking for one so that they would be able to share in the fight against the Byzantines. Only the Hypocrites abstained from spending and stayed behind.

Once the army was equipped, the Prophet started the march northward to Tabuk. The army was composed of thirty thousand fighters; the Muslims had never marched in such great numbers before. It was a long and difficult journey in the middle of a hot summer; however, they were patient and persistent.

An interesting measure of the Muslims’ growing wealth and strength, relative to their strength at the battle of Mu’tah, is the number of men and the number of horses on their previous expeditions. At Uhud in 624, they had more than three hundred men and only two horses. In 626, in their march to Badr to meet Abu Sufyan, a year after Uhud, they had 1,500 men and only ten horses. Two years later, in 628, at Khaybar, there was about the same number of men, but two hundred horses. In March 629 CE, at Mu’tah, the Muslim army comprised three thousand men. At Hunayn in 630, seven hundred Emigrants had three hundred horses, while four thousand Ansar had another five hundred horses. In the expedition of Tabuk they had thirty thousand men and ten thousand horses. 324

When the Muslim army arrived at Tabuk it encamped, ready to confront the Byzantine forces and their allies. However, they found no trace of any Byzantine forces. Either the Byzantines had withdrawn their forces when they heard of the strength of the Muslim army—a force ten times greater than the one they had faced at Mu’tah—or the information received by the Prophet was not correct. As the information about the mobilization of Byzantine forces had come from Coptic traders from Egypt doing business in Arabia, it was most likely that the Byzantines had decamped. Their forfeit gave the Muslim army a great victory; they gained a tremendous political and military reputation in Syria as well as at home in Arabia, far better than if their victory had come in a direct military confrontation. 325

After this show of force by the Prophet and the Muslims, many tribes and delegations came to pledge their allegiance and agree to pay taxes, and he secured the northern borders through alliances with those tribes. These agreements ensured that the Muslim state in Madina became better insulated against any trouble from the northern parts of Arabia.

The Prophet’s march from Madina to Tabuk was in the month of Rajab, and his return was in Ramadan. This expedition took fifty days, twenty days of which were spent in Tabuk, and thirty days were the time it took to travel to Tabuk and back to Madina. The army was received in Madina by all the Muslims as a great and victorious force. Women and children were singing, expressing great happiness and pride. When the Prophet had settled back in his city, he began to receive delegations from all regions of Arabia declaring their acceptance of Islam. Thaqif representatives came to Madina for negotiations with the Prophet. He gave them no concession on any of the issues they presented. They had no alternative but complete surrender and acceptance of Islam. The Thaqif delegation accepted the Prophet’s terms.

The Tabuk expedition marks a new phase in the history of Islam. It is true that this expedition was a response to a threat, but the expansion of the Muslim state beyond Arabia to include the Fertile Crescent had always been on Muhammad’s mind. Islam was a call to Arabs and non-Arabs, aimed at a spiritual union that embraced all of humanity in all the countries of the earth. The expedition to Tabuk, then, was a reconnaissance of the route to Syria, and an assertion that the Muslim sphere of influence extended beyond the borders of Arabia. It was clearly a strong and serious challenge to the Byzantine Empire. The treaties with the Christian communities on and near the Gulf of Aqaba, guaranteeing them protection in return for payments of tribute, imply that this assertion of a sphere of influence was intended to be permanent. These Christian communities were not asked to become Muslims, but only to submit to the Islamic state on certain conditions—mainly that the payment of an annual tribute, in money or in kind, would allow them to manage their own affairs as they had done before, and in their relations with outsiders they would be under the protection of the Islamic state. 326

Upon returning from Tabuk, the Prophet was firm in dealing with the opposition in Madina. Three incidents connected with the Tabuk expedition shed light on the nature and extent of such opposition: an assassination plot against him, which took place on a dangerous road on a dark night when he was returning to Madina; the “Mosque of Dissension,” which the Hypocrites built outside the city to be a center of conspiracy against Islam; and the Hypocrites who had stayed away from the expedition, and who were behind the first two issues.

The Declaration of No Place for Unbelievers in Arabia (Dhul-Hijjah, 9 AH/December 630 CE)

The Prophet and the Muslim army returned to Madina from Tabuk in the month of Ramadan. Two months later, the Prophet sent Abu Bakr to carry out the pilgrimage as the emir of Muslim pilgrims. Three hundred Muslims from Madina accompanied Abu Bakr; the Prophet also sent camels to be slaughtered in Mecca on his behalf. The purpose of this particular pilgrimage was to emphasize the difference between the Islamic way of pilgrimage and that of the unbelievers. The unbelievers used to do their tawaf naked. Islam prohibited this tradition and required the Muslims to cover their bodies.

After Abu Bakr left Madina, a new surah entitled “Repentance” was revealed. It starts with a declaration terminating all past treaties made between the Prophet and the Arabian tribes, with the exception of those tribes which had been absolutely faithful to the terms of their treaties. A grace period of four months was given. It was necessary to convey the message to all Arabian tribes, but most importantly to those who were parties to such treaties. The approaching pilgrimage season was the proper occasion for the termination of treaties to be announced.

The Prophet consulted with his companions, and they suggested that he should send someone to inform Abu Bakr of the new declaration so that he could announce it there. The Prophet said: “Only a man from my own household should convey this on my behalf.” This was in keeping with social traditions of the time. So he summoned his cousin, Ali ibn Abi Talib, and gave him the following instructions:

Take out this new revelation of the beginning of the surah and declare to all people on the day of sacrifice, when they have assembled in Mina, that no unbeliever will go into heaven, and no unbeliever may offer the pilgrimage after this year. No one is allowed to do the tawaf naked, and whoever has a covenant or a treaty with the Prophet, that treaty will be honored for the full length of its term.

On the appointed day, on the tenth day of Dhul-Hijjah, when all the Muslims were in Mina, Ali made his declaration:

This is an address to all people. Let them all know that no unbeliever may be admitted to heaven. No unbeliever is allowed to offer the pilgrimage after this season, and no one is allowed to do the tawaf round the Ka’bah in the nude. Whoever has a treaty with the Prophet, that treaty will be honored for its full term. Those who do not have treaty with the Prophet are hereby given four months’ notice.

This declaration was simply claiming Arabia as a land of Islam. The announcement sent a clear message to the unbelievers that there was no place for them in Arabia. Those who had treaties and were faithful to the terms of their treaties were given a new confirmation that the treaty was to be honored by the Prophet and Muslims to the last day. If any treaty lapsed before the end of four months, then those who had that treaty would enjoy the longer period of four months. These regulations applied only to the Arabian Peninsula. Outside Arabia, the unbelievers would not be affected by these regulations. Followers of other religions, such as Christians and Jews, were treated differently. They were considered equal citizens of the Muslim state, provided that they abided by the rules and laws of the state. 327

The Prophet had maintained security agreements with different tribes since his emigration from Mecca to Madina. As a matter of fact, the Madina Constitution was the first of these agreements. It was a pact of alliance among all residents of Madina regardless of religion or descent (the emigrants from Mecca, the Aws, the Khazraj, and the different Jewish tribes), who were all committed to participation in the protection of their new city-state. He extended this security agreement to include tribes and clans in the neighboring areas. The al-Hudaybiyah agreement with the Quraysh was also a security agreement which allowed him to build alliances with other tribes.

The polytheists’ opposition to the message of Islam was not simply opposition to the concept of the oneness of God, but opposition to all that was behind it. It was opposition to the principles of justice, equality, and the care for the needy, and opposition to the belief in the Judgment Day. The experience of the Prophet over twenty-two years had shown clearly that there could be no real coexistence between Islam and polytheism. They were two fundamentally different ways of life. Indeed, they differed on every point of detail in matters of faith, morals, and social values, as well as in their economic, political, and social structures. It was not to be expected that such radically opposed concepts of life could exist peacefully for any length of time. Every step taken by either side must be totally and completely opposed to the attitude of the other. The clash between them was inevitable. 328

The expedition to Tabuk was a clear indication of the Prophet’s emphasis on expansion northward. The religious aspect was almost always uppermost in his thoughts, and the motivation which drove him on was the desire to fulfill God’s command to spread Islam. Utilizing the resources of all of Arabia was essential for the success of this great mission. Most likely, Muhammad had shared this vision with his close companions, Abu-Bakr and Umar. He must have been able to frame the policies and strategies of the expansion into Syria and conveyed his thoughts to his two companions. 329

The Farewell Pilgrimage (Dhul-Hijjah, 10 AH/March 632 CE)

In the tenth year of the Islamic calendar, the Prophet announced that he intended to offer the pilgrimage, and made it known that he welcomed anyone who wished to offer the pilgrimage with him. People from all over Arabia started to come to Madina to join the Prophet in his journey to Mecca to offer the pilgrimage. The number of pilgrims who arrived at Madina was estimated between 90,000 and 130,000. A similar number were waiting for him in Mecca. The Prophet left Madina on the twenty-fifth day of Dhul-Qa’dah. He had with him a hundred camels which he intended to slaughter as a sacrifice. He entered the state of consecration in a place called Dhul Hulayfah, ten kilometers from Madina.

The peaceful march continued until they arrived in Mecca on the fourth day of Dhul-Hijjah. At Arafat he delivered a major speech that became known as the Farewell Sermon. The Prophet’s speech was the highlight of this pilgrimage, as it outlined the nature of Islamic society.

People, listen to me as I explain to you, for I do not know whether I will ever meet you again in this place after this year.

My Lord, bear witness. He who holds something belonging to another for safekeeping must give it back to the person to whom it belongs. All usury transactions which have been made in the past days’ ignorance are hereby abrogated. You may claim only your capital, neither inflicting nor suffering injustice. God has decreed that no usury is permissible. . . .

My Lord, bear witness. People, you have an obligation toward your womenfolk and they have an obligation toward you. Your womenfolk are in your custody; they are helpless. You have taken them on the basis of a pledge to God, and they are lawful to you with God’s word. Fear God, then, in your treatment of women, and be kind to them.

My Lord, bear witness. People, the believers are brothers. It is illegal for anyone to take the property of his brother unless it is given without any coercion. People, your Lord is one and your father is one. All of you are the children of Adam, and Adam was created from dust. The most noble among you is the most God-fearing. No Arab enjoys any privilege over a non-Arab except through the fear of God.

My Lord, bear witness. People, Satan has given up any hope of being worshipped in this land of yours. He is satisfied, however, to be obeyed in matters which you consider trivial. Guard yourselves against him, lest he corrupt your faith. I have left with you what should keep you safe from going astray should you hold fast to it. It is something clear and simple: God’s Book and the sunnah [way] of his Prophet.

During his pilgrimage, the Prophet recited the following verse to his companions:

This day I have completed your religion for you, and perfected My grace to you and approved Islam as your religion.

(Chapter 6, Surah 5:3, the Feast)

The surah entitled “Victory” was revealed to the Prophet on the second day of his stay at Mina:

When God’s help and victory come, and you see people embracing God’s faith in groups, glorify your Lord and praise Him and ask His forgiveness, for He is much-forgiving.

(Chapter 30, Surah 110:1–3, Victory)

A New Expedition to Syria

A few weeks after the Prophet’s return to Madina, he received news that prompted him to start preparations for an expedition against Byzantium. Muhammad as messenger of God was commanded to deliver the message not just to the people of Arabia, but all mankind. This is why he had sent emissaries to all rulers in neighboring regions. One of the rulers who received a message from the Prophet was Farwah ibn Umar al-Juthami, the governor of Ma’an, in the south of present-day Jordan. This territory was part of the Byzantine Empire, and the governor was appointed by the Byzantine emperor. When Farwah received the message, he responded positively and sent a message to the Prophet informing him of his acceptance of Islam. When the Byzantine emperor learned about his appointed governor’s response, however, he gave an order to arrest him. Farwah was sentenced to death; and shortly afterwards was executed near a spring known as Afra in Palestine. He was crucified and left on the cross for a long time in order to dissuade others from following his example.

The Prophet viewed the execution of Farwah as an act of provocation that required a firm response from the Muslims. Therefore Muhammad ordered that an army be raised under the command of Usama ibn Zayd ibn Harithah, a talented young man in his twenties. It was expected that Usama’s army would include a large number of capable soldiers much older than Usama, who were highly qualified to be commanders themselves. By this appointment, the Prophet meant to emphasize that seniority of age or position counted for nothing. Usama’s father, Zayd ibn Harithah, had been a slave owned by Khadijah, Muhammad’s first wife. Muhammad had set him free and adopted him as his own son. Zayd had been appointed as the first commander of the first army in the first war between the Muslim state and the Byzantine Empire. The choice of Usama as the commander of the army of this expedition was a clear demonstration that under Islam, a son of a former slave was worthy of being the commander of an army in which many people of noble birth were ordinary soldiers. A great number of the Prophet’s companions volunteered to take part in that expedition, including Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattab. 330

The Prophet gave Usama very clear instructions that outlined the purpose of the expedition. He was to take his army into the heartland of Palestine as a demonstration of strength and a warning. The mission was to make the Byzantine rulers think twice before embarking on any provocative adventure against the Muslim state. Another purpose was to assure the Arab tribes that the Muslim state had the power to protect them against any threat or danger from the Byzantine Empire.

Usama’s army encamped at a place called al-Jurf, a few kilometers from Madina, waiting for the volunteers to get ready. The prophet’s illness delayed their departure, however.

The Prophet’s Illness

In the tenth year AH (the beginning of 632 CE), the Prophet was visibly failing, increasingly conscious that he was approaching the end of his life. He made his final pilgrimage and delivered the Farewell Sermon, as recounted above. Just as he sensed that he would never see Mecca again, he also sensed that he didn’t have much longer to live. Muhammad was sixty-three years old, after all—a long life for his time. He had been wounded several times in battle and had survived a few assassination attempts. 331 When he returned to Madina, he began to experience incapacitating headaches and fainting attacks, but he never retired permanently to bed. He would often wrap a cloth around his aching temples and go to the mosque to lead the prayers or to address the people. One morning, he seemed to pray for long time in honor of the Muslims who had died at Uhud. At length, he said, “God has given one of his servants the choice between this world and that which is with God, and he has chosen the latter.” Abu Bakr, who understood that the Prophet was referring to his own imminent death, began to weep bitterly. “Gently, gently, Abu Bakr,” Muhammad said tenderly. 332

On Monday, the twenty-ninth day of Safar in the eleventh year of Al-Hijra, the Prophet complained to his wife Aisha that he had a headache. He used to visit all his wives every day in the morning. That day, when he was in Maymuna’s home, his pain became worse, and he felt too weak to carry on with his rounds. He therefore asked his wives if they would let him be nursed in Aisha’s home. As they all agreed, he went there, supported by two of his cousins.

His illness continued to get worse that morning, and he became feverish. He asked to be given a cold bath. His family, at his request, poured on him seven containers of water gathered from several wells. When his temperature had gone down and he felt better, he asked his cousin, al-Fadl ibn Abbas, to take his hand and walk him to the mosque. He sat on the pulpit with a band round his head, then he asked al-Fadl to call the people. When they gathered to listen to the Prophet, he addressed them:

I praise God, the One other than whom there is no deity. If I have ever beaten any one of you on his back, let him come and avenge himself by beating me on my back. To dispute is not part of my nature, nor does it appeal to me. The one of you who is dearest to me is the one who has a right against me and claims it. By so doing, he releases me, and I will be able to meet God with nothing held against me by any person. 333

Between the final days of the month of Safar and the early days of Rabi al-Awwal, the Prophet showed no signs of any improvement in his health. His illness was getting worse, and it was obvious to those people who were around him that he was suffering, which made them very sad. Despite his discomfort and suffering, he continued to lead the believers in prayers. As his condition worsened, he ordered Abu Bakr to lead the prayers. Abu Bakr led the prayers seventeen times—that is, for three and a half days.

On Monday, the twelfth day of Rabi al-Awwal 11 AH (June 8, 632 CE) the Prophet emerged from Aisha’s room and came to the mosque as they stood in their rows fully engaged in their worship, with Abu Bakr reciting the Quran. The Muslims were overjoyed when they saw him, and started to move to give him chance to pass. He signaled them to stay in their positions. The Prophet was so happy to see his companions at prayer led by Abu Bakr; he was assured that the nation was strong and unified. His companions thought that he was on his way for full recovery.

Aisha described what happened when he returned from the mosque:

He came back and laid down, putting his head in my lap. A man from Abu Bakr brought a green miswak to the Prophet. He took it and cleaned his teeth with it very strongly, then put it down. I felt his head getting heavier in my lap. I looked at his face and noticed that his eyes were staring hard. Then he said in a faint voice: “The Highest Company in Heaven.” 334

As soon as Abu Bakr learned about the tragic news, he went to Aisha’s room. He uncovered the Prophet’s face and knelt down and kissed him, saying: “My father and mother may be sacrificed for your sake. The one death that God has decreed that you shall experience, you have now had. You shall not die again.” 335 Abu Bakr covered his face and went to the mosque where the people of Madina had gathered. They were stunned and did not know what to do. Despite the repeated hints by the Prophet of his impending death, they could not imagine or comprehend the event. Umar ibn al-Khattab was shocked and could not think logically; he was speaking to the people around him in a state of denial. Abu Bakr stopped him and then addressed the crowd, saying, after he praised God, “People, if any of you has been worshipping Muhammad, let him know that Muhammad is dead. He who worships God knows that God is always alive; He never dies.” He then recited a verse from the Quran:

Muhammad is no more than a messenger. Messengers have passed on before him. If he dies or gets killed, will you turn on your heels? He who turns on his heels will not harm Allah in any way. And Allah will reward the appreciative.

(Chapter 3, Surah 3:144, the Family of Imran)

When people heard Abu Bakr reciting that verse of the Quran, it was as if they had never heard it before. Umar said: “When I heard Abu Bakr reciting that verse, I was stunned and perplexed. I fell down to the ground, feeling that my legs could not support me. I realized, however, that God’s messenger was dead.” 336

Muhammad’s Legacy

Muhammad was the “Seal of Prophets”; none could exercise the religious role of prophet after his death. The mission of the apostle of God was not something that could be passed on.

Muhammad is not the father of any one of you men; but he is the Messenger of Allah, and the seal of the prophets. Allah is cognizant of everything.

(Chapter 22, Surah 33:40, the Confederates)

The Prophet did not depart from the world without having delivered the entire set of principles of the new religion, as revealed to him by God in a manner calculated to prevent any confusion or ambiguity.

Today I have perfected your religion for you, and have completed My favor upon you, and have approved Islam as religion for you.

(Chapter 6, Surah 5:3, the Feast)

The next thing to be done was to prepare the Prophet’s body for burial. Ali ibn Abi Talib and al-Abbas’ two sons, al-Fadl and Qutham, as well as Usama ibn Zayd, were given that task. When they finished washing him, they discussed where to bury him. Abu Bakr told them that the Prophet had mentioned that every prophet was buried in the place where he died. So he was buried in Aisha’s room.

The Prophet died without appointing a successor or advising his companions how to manage their affairs upon his death. He did not address the problem of succession or what form of a political system to adopt. If the establishment of a state with a specific political system had been on his mind, he would have addressed this issue. Muhammad was a prophet, a messenger; his mission was to convey God’s message. The religion of Islam aims at the reformation of human life and redirecting humans to the righteous path, the path leading to God. Islam aims at preparing humans for Judgment Day, and for the entrance into their eternal state. It is a holy and pure preaching which calls all humanity, regardless of the color of their skin, to the mercy of the Lord in heaven and earth and to his good in both worlds.

In his life the Prophet left every tribe or region alone to manage their own affairs, guided by the principles of Islam and its moral obligations. In his last days in this world, he left the matter of succession in the hands of his followers. All they needed to do was to continue to be bound to the principles of their faith. 337

The death of Muhammad marked the end of the first stage of Islam: that of the Message, the religion; and the beginning of a new stage: that of the state, the Arab Empire. The Islamic teachings had elevated the Arabs as a united nation to a very high position among other nations, the best during their time. “A pure creed, untarnished by polytheism, a faith established solidly in the deepest part of the soul, a morality which the Prophet had raised to the highest peak, an intellect in accordance with the soundest nature, a sense of vitality accruing from the natural environment, a union under God capable of reconciling extremes and eradicating differences, binding them into true fraternity under God—such was the condition of the Arabs at the death of the Prophet.” 338

Allah has promised those of you who believe and do righteous deeds, that He will make them successors on earth, as He made those before them successors, and He will establish for them their religion—which He has approved for them—and He will substitute security in place of their fear. They worship Me, never associating anything with Me. But whoever disbelieves after that—these are the sinners.

(Chapter 18, Surah 24:55, Light)

The Muslim State during the Life of the Prophet Muhammad

Muhammad’s emigration to Madina in 622 CE marked the beginning of a new phase of the history of Islam that was completely different from the first phase, which had taken place in Mecca. It was in Madina that the first Muslim community had been born and Muhammad’s social reform movement started. The ten years of Muhammad’s life in Madina became the reference point in Islam for all historians, scholars, politicians, and reformers for the fourteen hundred years that followed. This short period of the history of Islam has been interpreted in different ways by different thinkers and movements. Such differences are attributed to the fact that Muhammad’s biographers were living at a time in which the Muslim community had become an enormously powerful empire. 339 The first Muslim his-torians began to write about the life of the Prophet Muhammad in the eighth and ninth centuries.

Before Islam, the Prophet participated in the life of his community as a respectful and loyal citizen of Mecca. But when Islam began, the situation changed: he and his slowly growing group of followers managed their own affairs, religious and non-religious. The Muslims referred to the Prophet and not to the municipal council of Mecca for any of their concerns or affairs; their situation was that of a state within a state. 340

Unlike Mecca, there was no state in Yathrib (Madina); there were several tribes fighting among themselves. When Muhammad arrived in Madina, he immediately settled the Meccan Mujahirun (Emigrants) among the Ansar (his supporters), and suggested that each Madinan family fraternize with a Meccan family. In no time his position was established as the arbiter between the two tribes, the Aws and the Khazraj. Both tribes started to address their problems and asked for his advice and recommendations. Practically speaking, he became the leader of the city.

The first and most urgent issue that got the Prophet’s attention, as the leader of the new city-state, was the security of the Muslim community in Madina. As soon as the Prophet and his companions settled in Madina, the Meccans sent an ultimatum to the Madinans: “Either kill or expel our enemy, Muhammad, or we shall take necessary measures.” 341 This threat prompted Muhammad to bring together the chiefs of all the tribes, both Muslims and non-Muslims, and suggest the creation of a constitution for a confederal type of city-state that would guarantee autonomy to each unit. In consultation with these representatives, a written constitution was prepared.

The constitution of the city-state of Madina is in fact the oldest written constitution in world history. All groups in the city regardless of religion or birth (tribe or clan) enjoyed equal rights and complete autonomy in all matters, not just religious affairs. The different Jewish tribes, as well as the Muslims and non-Muslims of Madina, accepted this constitution and became bound to its terms. The document was issued by Muhammad in the form of a letter addressed to all Muslims of the city, Emigrants and Helpers (Muhajirun and Ansar), and their non-Muslim allies:

In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate!

This is a document drawn up by Muhammad, the Prophet for the believers and Muslims from the Quraysh and Yathrib [Madina] and whoever joins them and takes part in their struggle for their cause: they are one nation, distinguished from all other people.

This document, as discussed on page XX earlier in this chapter, was a pact of alliance among all residents of Madina regardless of religion or descent (the emigrants from Mecca, the Aws, the Khazraj, and the different Jewish tribes), who were all committed to participating in the protection of their new city-state. The constitution emphasized the solidarity of all the inhabitants of Madina against foreigners: an enemy of one group was to be the enemy of each and all. The constitution was influenced by the pre-Islamic principles that dealt with crimes and offenses. It was a sacred duty for each member of the tribe to give help to another member, and if necessary, to avenge his death based on the principle of “an eye for eye, a tooth for tooth, and a life for a life.” The constitution adopted the principles of retribution as the basis of the justice system; however, it modified the principle of a life for a life with the possibility of accepting blood-money as an alternative. The Quran approved the law of retribution as a legitimate response to injury; however, Muhammad urged believers toward forgiveness. The Quran supported the Prophet’s position:

The repayment of a bad action is one equivalent to it. But whoever pardons and makes reconciliation, his reward lies with Allah. He does not love the unjust.

(Chapter 25, Surah 42:40, Consultation)

The city-state of Madina was a confederation of different groups who enjoyed much autonomy, with only one restriction: not to violate the principles of Islam. As more people converted to Islam, the state expanded, but continued to be a confederation. In the year 5 AH, the Prophet sent a letter to a number of chieftains, telling them that if they embraced Islam, the Prophet would allow them to continue to enjoy their ruling powers.

The second urgent issue that the Prophet had to address was justice, equality, and preserving the dignity of all members of the community. Muhammad believed that he had to take care of the needy by utilizing the zakat (alms) revenue for this purpose. A whole set of economic and social measures were implemented by Muhammad to achieve this goal. The Quran calls money the very subsistence of humanity, and demands charity for the needy. Charity soon became duty and an obligation in the form of a tax (zakat) spent in accordance with a clear and well-defined system of expenditures.

During the life of the Prophet Muhammad, the administration of finance was an important exercise. He devoted great effort to managing revenue and expenditure. He put in place the required measures to secure the needed funds from different sources: the religious tax, spoils from raiding expeditions, and the tithes paid by the People of the Book. He established proper procedures for tax collectors and agents.

The Quran states clearly the beneficiaries of zakat:

Righteousness does not consist of turning your face toward the East and the West. But righteous is he who believes in Allah and the Last Day, and the Angels, and the Scripture, and the Prophets. Who gives money, though dear, to near relatives, and orphans, and the needy, and the homeless, and the beggars, and for the freeing of slaves; those who perform the prayers, and pay the obligatory charity, and fulfill their promise when they promise, and patiently persevere in the face of persecution, hardship, and in the time of conflict. These are the sincere; these are the pious.

(Chapter 2, Surah 2:177, the Cow)

The Battles of the Prophet

The Prophet was involved in several military activities and carried out multiple expeditions in order to defend the Muslim community of Madina and to protect Muslims in general. None of those military activities were aimed at forcing any tribe to accept Islam. Muhammad was the messenger of God; his mission was to spread the word of God through persuasion and not through coercion. Religious preaching takes effect only by words, not by swords. The Quran was clear about this issue:

There is no compulsion in religion.

Right guidance has been distinguished from error.

Invite to the way of your Lord with wisdom and good Advice, and debate with them in the most dignified manner. Your Lord is aware of those who stray from His path, and He is aware of those who are guided.

(Chapter 14, Surah 16:125, the Bee)

So remind. You are only a reminder. You have no control over them.

(Chapter 30, Surah 88:21–24, the Overwhelming Event)

The Ethics of Warfare

The Prophet was a great military strategist and commander. When we examine the formation of the fighting units and their positions in the battlefields, we realize that he exhibited great vision and unprecedented skills. In the battle of Badr, he controlled the only source of water in the region. In the battle of Uhud, he controlled the high ground and the avenues for retreat. The Battle of the Moat was the first of its kind in the history of Arabia. In all three battles, he was carrying out a defensive war against an aggressor, the Quraysh. The Prophet carried out several military expeditions in the north and east of Arabia against tribes who were threatening the Madinan caravans to Syria and Iraq, or were conspiring and preparing to attack Madina. In these expeditions he skillfully utilized the element of surprise, giving the enemy no time to prepare their defenses or build alliances.

The surprise factor was not the only element in Muhammad’s military strategies. The Prophet was always concerned about bloodshed. He believed that his objective could be reached in a bloodless manner by striking at the right moment when the enemy would not dare offer any resistance. Victory could be obtained by overwhelming the enemy, and not through annihilation. The conquest of Mecca demonstrated masterful military planning and preparation. Muhammad raised the largest army—more than ten thousand fighters from all over Arabia—and marched toward Mecca from different locations, yet he managed to keep his march to Mecca unnoticed by the Quraysh. As he encamped a short distance from Mecca, he asked each soldier to start his own fire: the most magnificent scene that shocked the Quraysh and gave them no option but to surrender unconditionally. Muhammad then crowned his great victory by pardoning the Quraysh for all the crimes and persecution they had inflicted on him and his companions. Thus he captured their hearts as he captured their city. The Prophet established new rules for his wars, which became known as the doctrine of jihad. Islamic warfare (jihad) is differentiated from pre-Islamic warfare by its ethical dimension. The Quran emphasizes the distinction between combatants and noncombatants. The killing of women, children, monks, rabbis, the elderly, or any other noncombatant is absolutely forbidden. Torture of prisoners of war is prohibited, as well as mutilation of the dead, rape, molestation, and any kind of sexual offenses. The lives of diplomats are protected. Demolition of residential buildings, religious and medical institutions is prohibited. In the doctrine of jihad, only defensive wars are allowed:

And fight in the cause of Allah those who fight you, but do not commit aggression; Allah does not love the aggressors.

(Chapter 2, Surah 2:190, the Cow)

The battles fought by the Prophet Muhammad are characteristic of the man: conspicuous, he stood head and shoulders above many others, past or present. He was practically always victorious. His small city-state of Madina expanded at an average of 830 kilometers daily; after ten years, it reached some three million square kilometers, inhabited by millions of people. This conquest was at a cost of less than 250 men killed on the battlefields on the enemy side. Muslim losses were at the rate of one martyr a month for a period of ten years on average (138). 342

The Prophet understood, from the moment he received the revelation, that he was the messenger of God to all mankind. His night journey to Jerusalem affirmed his universal message. However, it was not possible for Muhammad to expand his call beyond Arabia when his Muslim state in Madina was not yet secured. In the early months of his seventh year in Madina, it became clear to him that the Arabian scene had changed radically, especially after his triumph in Khaybar that followed the al-Hudaybiyah peace treaty with the Quraysh. As the Muslim state in Madina became more secure, he felt able to devote time and effort to expanding his call to other communities. He sent envoys to the rulers of neighboring countries to determine how receptive they were to Islam, using the results to determine his strategy.

The Prophet was aware of the situation in Iraq and Syria. The wars between Persia and Byzantium had exhausted the two powers. He was confident that the Muslim Arabs would be able to conquer both empires. He believed strongly that the message of Islam would prevail and spread throughout Arabia and beyond. This belief existed in his heart and mind even before he emigrated to Madina. It was what motivated him to send expeditions to Syria twice: first, the excursion to Mu’tab, which ended in defeat, but with the loss of only twelve martyrs; and then the victory at Tabuk, where the Byzantine forces chose not to fight.

The Prophet’s Political System

The Prophet instituted a political regime which was unique and completely different from the typical government institutions and typical temporal power. It was based on simplicity and the absence of formalities. It lacked the essential devices of typical temporal governments, yet it provided all necessary measures to manage the affairs of the community. In this system, the Prophet had complete and unlimited power and authority over his people, but it was different from the authority and power that a temporal ruler wields over his subjects. The Prophet’s authority belonged to the category of sacred power attributable to prophets alone. It was a spiritual authority that was born of the believers’ faith, and their willingness to obey and submit wholeheartedly to the messenger of God. Islam constituted a religious union in which Muslims became one community; the Prophet was the head and the leader of this union, with absolute power none could defy or oppose. The Prophet possessed a power that no king would ever have over his people, either before or after him. 343

Islam was a call to Arabs and non-Arabs; it aimed at a spiritual union that would embrace all of humanity in all the countries on earth. Although the Quran was revealed in clear Arabic, it did not mean that Arabs were superior to others, and it was not meant to create an Arab entity or to become an Arab religion. But it was revealed in Arabic and through an Arabic apostle, so it was natural that Islam spread first among the Arab people.

The Arab lands were home to a number of tribes that differed from one another, speaking in different dialects and spread over a wide geographic region. They also lived under different political systems. There were huge differences in their systems of government, their customs, and their economic livelihoods. Despite these differences, however, the Arab tribes came together under the banner of Islam and joined to one another with religious ties, forming a single community, the Umma, under the authority of the Prophet Muhammad. This union of the Arabs was not a political union but a religious one; it was a union of faith, of religious doctrine.

The Prophet Muhammad never intervened in the political affairs of the various tribes. Nor did he intervene in their social or economic relations and affairs. He left all these matters to the people, declaring: “You are better informed than I am in affairs of the temporal realm.” Each tribe was responsible for its particular conditions: political, social, or economic. They were only bound by the principles of Islam and its moral obligations. During the time of the Prophet, the Arabs maintained diversity in their political, social, and economic systems. It is worth mentioning here that this diversity was mitigated by the strong bonds of Islam and the spiritual leadership of the Prophet. Before Islam, this diversity led to conflicts and violent interactions, but after they adopted Islam, the conflicts almost disappeared as a result of the new faith. This facts well stated in the Quran:

And hold fast to the rope of Allah, altogether, and do not become divided. And remember Allah’s blessings upon you; how you were enemies, and He reconciled your hearts, and by His grace you became brethren. And you were on the brink of a pit of fire, and He saved you from it. Allah thus clarifies His revelations for you, so that you may be guided.

(Chapter 4, Surah 3:103, the Family of Imran)

Footnotes

217. Reza Aslan, No god but God: The Origin and Evolution of Islam (New York: Delacorte Press, 2005), 4.

218. Aslan, No god but God, 8.

219. Adil Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet (Leicestershire, UK: The Islamic Foundation, 1995), 54.

220. Aslan, No god but God, 4.

221. Karen Armstrong, Muhammad: A Prophet for Our Time, from the “Eminent Lives” series (New York: Atlas Books, 2006), 33.

222. Armstrong, Muhammad, 32–33.

223. Aslan, No god but God, 9.

224. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 140.

225. Aslan, No god but God, 29.

226. Mohammad A. Bamyeh, The Social Origins of Islam: Mind, Economy, Discourse (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1999), 21.

227. Armstrong, Muhammad, 28–29.

228. Mohammed A. Bamyeh, The Social Origins of Islam: Mind, Economy, Discourse (Minneapolis, MN: U of Minnesota Press, 1999), 18.

229. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 8.

230. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 11.

231. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 11–15.

232. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 50.

233. Armstrong, Muhammad, 31.

234. Aslan, No god but God, 22–27.

235. Bamyeh, The Social Origins of Islam, 29–32.

236. Armstrong, Muhammad, 30.

237. Bamyeh, The Social Origins of Islam, 31.

238. W. Montgomery Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961), 9.

239. Bamyeh, The Social Origins of Islam, 31.

240. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 52.

241. Fred M. Donner, “Muhammad and the Caliphate,” chapter 1 of the Oxford History of Islam, ed. John L. Esposito (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 1–5.

242. Michael H. Hart, The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History (New York: Kensington Publishing Corp., 1992), 3.

243. Hart, The 100, 3–10.

244. Aslan, No god but God, 22.

245. Armstrong, Muhammad, 37.

246. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 44.

247. Armstrong, Muhammad, 39.

248. Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman, 36–37.

249. Aslan, No god but God, 40.

250. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 87–88.

251. Muhammad Hamidullah, The Prophet’s Establishing a State and His Succession (New Delhi: Adam Publishers & Distributors, 2007), 20–22.

252. Aslan, No god but God, 43–45; Armstrong, Muhammad, 73–75.

253. Armstrong, Muhammad, 78–79.

254. Armstrong, Muhammad, 80.

255. Safiur-Rahman Al-Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar: Biography of the Noble Prophet (Riyadh: Darussalam, 2008), 102–103.

256. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 161.

257. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 178–179.

258. Armstrong, Muhammad, 78.

259. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 182–183.

260. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 197–198.

261. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 198.

262. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 199.

263. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 206.

264. Aslan, No god but God, 54.

265. Armstrong, Muhammad, 89–90.

266. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 226–227.

267. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 229–230.

268. S. Abul Hassan Ali Nadawi, Muhammad Rasulullah, trans. Mohiuddin Ahmad (Lucknow, India: Academy of Islamic Research and Publications, 1979), 161–162.

269. Hamidullah, The Prophet’s Establishing a State, 45–46.

270. Meraj Muhiuddin, Revelation: The Story of Muhammad (Scottsdale, AZ: Whiteboard Press, 2015), 180–181.

271. Aslan, No god but God, 54–58.

272. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 235–236; Hamidullah, The Prophet’s Establishing a State, 83–84.

273. Hamidullah, The Prophet’s Establishing a State, 45.

274. Hamidullah, The Prophet’s Establishing a State, 24–25.

275. W. Montgomery Watt, Islamic Political Thought (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1998), 4–6; Michael Lecker, The Constitution of Medina (Princeton, NJ: Darwin Press, 2004), 32–39.

276. Aslan, No god but God, 59.

277. Aslan, No god but God, 60.

278. Hamidullah, The Prophet’s Establishing a State, 79–103.

279. Armstrong, Muhammad: A Prophet for Our Time, 92.

280. Armstrong, Muhammad: A Prophet for Our Time, 93.

281. Al-Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, 418.

282. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 397–398; Aslan, No God but God, 64.

283. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 487–492.

284. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 406.

285. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 582.

286. Armstrong, Muhammad, 107–111.

287. Aslan, No god but God, 82–83.

288. Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman, 109–112.

289. Armstrong, Muhammad, 119–124.

290. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 283.

291. Aslan, No god but God, 89–90.

292. Armstrong, Muhammad, 125.

293. Aslan, No god but God, 87–88.

294. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 320.

295. Armstrong, Muhammad, 129.

296. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 320–321.

297. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 353–334.

298. A. I. Akram, The Sword of Allah: Khalid Bin al-Waleed, A Biographical Study of One of the Greatest Military Generals in History (Birmingham, England: Maktabah Booksellers and Publishers, 2007), 66–67 (in reference to Ibn Sad, 572).

299. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 438.

300. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 442 (quoting Ibn Kathir).

301. Aslan, No god but God, 93–95.

302. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 523.

303. Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman, 177–180.

304. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 521.

305. Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman, 183–184.

306. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 501–502.

307. Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman, 185–186.

308. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 521.

309. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 531–542.

310. Armstrong, Muhammad, 180.

311. Armstrong, Muhammad, 180–181.

312. Armstrong, Muhammad, 192; Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 576–580.

313. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 580.

314. Armstrong, Muhammad, 194.

315. Martin Lings, Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources (Rochester, VT: Inner Traditions, 1983), 291.

316. Martin Lings, Muhammad, 298–299.

317. Hamidullah, The Battlefields of The Prophet Muhammad (New Delhi: Nusrat Ali Nasri for Kitab Bhavan, 2007 (first printing 1923), 79.

318. Hamidullah, The Battlefields of the Prophet Muhammad, 86.

319. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 668–669.

320. Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman, 210–211.

321. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 773–774.

322. Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman, 223–225.

323. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 685–686.

324. Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman, 214–215.

325. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 700–701.

326. Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman, 218–219.

327. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 735–738.

328. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 737.

329. Watt, Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman, 222.

330. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 792.

331. Lesley Hazleton, After the Prophet: The Epic Story of the Shia-Sunni Split in Islam (New York: Doubleday, 2009), 7.

332. Armstrong, Muhammad, 193–195.

333. Salahi: Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 802.

334. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 802.

335. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 804.

336. Salahi, Muhammad: Man and Prophet, 804.

337. Ali Abdel Razek, Islam and the Foundations of Political Power, tr. Mariam Loutfi, ed. Abdou Filali-ansary (Edinburgh, Edinburgh University Press, 2012), 92–101.

338. Razek, Islam and the Foundations of Political Power, 108.

339. Aslan, No god but God, 53.

340. Hamidullah, The Prophet’s Establishing a State, 20–22.

341. Hamidullah, The Prophet’s Establishing a State, 24.

342. Hamidullah, The Battlefields of the Prophet Muhammad, 2–3.

343. Razek, Islam and the Foundations of Political Power, 82–86.

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